*  SCHOOL  LATIN  GRAMMA 


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GIFT   OF 
Mrs.  F.  M.  Foster 


HARPER'S    LATIN    SERIES 


EDITED    BY 

EDWARD   P.  MORRIS,  M.A. 

PROFESSOR   OF   THE   LATIN    LANGUAGE   AND    LITERATURE 
IN    YALE   UNIVERSITY 

AND 

MORRIS    H.  MORGAN,  Ph.D. 

ASSISTANT    PROFESSOR    OF    LATIN     IN     HARVARD     UNIVERSITY 


A 


SCHOOL   LATIN   GRAMMAR 


PREPARED    BY 


MORRIS    H.  MORGAN,  Ph.D. 

ASSISTANT    PROFESSOR    OF  LATIN    IN 
HARVARD   UNIVERSITY 


CHIEFLY  FROM 

LANE'S  LATIN  GRAMMAR 


NEW  YORK  AND   LONDON 
HARPER    &    BROTHERS    PUBLISHERS 

1899 


LANE'S   LATIN   GRAMMAR. 

A  LATIN  GRAMMAR  for  Schools  and  Colleges. 
By  George  M.  Lane,  Ph.D.,  Professor  Emeritus 
of  Latin  in  Harvard  University.  Crown  8vo,  Cloth, 
$1  50  ;   by  mail,  $1  65. 

NEW    YORK    AND    LONDON : 
HARPER  &  BROTHERS,  PUBLISHERS. 


Copyright,  1899,  by  Harpbr  &  Brothers. 
AU  rights  rtstrvtd. 

GIFT 


M67 


PREFACE 


This  book  is  intended  for  the  use  of  students  of  Latin 
during  their  course  in  secondary  schools.  It  will  not  en- 
tirely supply  the  wants  of  teachers  or  college  students. 
Good  teachers  will  never  be  satisfied  to  use  themselves  only 
the  manual  designed  for  their  pupils,  and  the  grammar  for 
college  students  ought  to  be  a  work  of  reference,  not  merely 
a  lesson-book  out  of  which  they  may  learn  the  elements  of 
the  language.  Some  of  the  additional  information  required 
by  teachers  and  college  students  is  readily  accessible  in  the 
larger  grammars  now  in  use  in  this  country,  but  these  books 
have  far  outgrown  the  needs  of  school-boys  and  school-girls. 

Pupils  in  a  secondary  school  ought  to  be  carefully  trained  to 
pronounce  Latin  correctly,  even  in  small  details ;  they  ought 
to  be  introduced  to  the  leading  principles  under  which  Latin 
words  are  formed  ;  they  should  be  thoroughly  versed  in  inflec- 
tions ;  and  they  should  have  a  good  working  knowledge  of 
the  most  important  principles  of  the  syntax  of  classical  prose 
and  verse.  Ample  material  for  acquiring  information  on  these 
four  lines  will  be  found  in  this  book ;  in  addition,  the  Appen- 
dix contains  matter  which,  though  most  of  it  properly  belongs 
to  a  work  on  Latin  composition,  is  inserted  here  in  deference 
to  custom. 

The  book  is  chiefly  drawn  from  Lane's  Latin  Grammar  for 
Schools  and  Colleges.     Professor  Lane  himself  looked  forward 


\hf^*\*\A  UC^ 


Preface 

to  such  a  book,  but  I  have  no  information  about  his  plan  for 
it.  To. omit  or  to  simpHfy  has  been  my  chief  task,  although 
here  and  there  I  have  ventured  to  alter  a  statement  of  prin- 
ciple or  to  introduce  a  new  section.  In  order  to  facilitate 
cross-reference,  I  have,  after  the  section  numbers  of  this  book, 
added  in  parentheses  the  numbers  of  the  corresponding  sec- 
tions in  the  larger  grammar.  The  versified  rules  for  gender 
(§§  207-220),  which  do  not  there  appear,  were  chiefly  drawn 
up  by  Professor  Lane  some  twenty  years  ago.  The  sections 
on  the  Order  of  Words  (1138-1165)  are  based  on  his  draught, 
of  which  mention  is  made  in  the  preface  to  the  larger  gram- 
mar. Nearly  all  the  examples  of  syntax  are  taken  from  that 
work;  but  I  have  not  thought  it  worth  while  to  print  the 
references,  because  teachers  and  others  interested  can  easily 
find  them  there.  Ordinarily  I  have  chosen  examples  from 
Cicero,  Caesar,  or  Vergil. 

Professor  Morris,  of  Yale  University,  has  been  good  enough 
to  read  the  manuscript  and  the  proofs  of  the  book,  and  I 
thank  him  for  this  act  of  friendship. 


Morris  H.  Morgan. 


Harvard  University,  July,  1899. 

iv 


TABLE    OF   CONTENTS 

THE  REFERENCES  ARE  TO  SECTIONS 

Parts  of  Latin  Grammar,  i. 

FIRST    PART:    WORDS,  2-450 
Parts  of  Speech,  2-15. 

(A.)    SOUND,  16-51 
Alphabet,  16-20. 
Vowels,  21-37. 

Long  and  Short,  21,  22.     Pronunciation,  23-26.     Classification,  27. 

Diphthongs,  28-30. 

Nature  and  Kinds,  28.     Pronunciation,  29,  30. 

Consonants,  31-41. 

Pronunciation,  31-36.     Classification,  37-41. 

Syllables,  42. 

Length  of  Vowels,  43-45. 

Short  Vowels,  43.     Long  Vowels,  44,  45. 

Length  of  Syllables,  46,  47. 
Accent,  48-51. 

Of  Disyllables,  48.     Of  Polysyllables,  49-50.     Enclitics,  51. 

(B.)     FORMATION,  52-113 
Definitions,  52-60. 

Roots,  53-56.     Present  Stems  as  Roots,  57.     Stems,  58,  59.     Primitives  and 
Denominatives,  60. 

Formation  of  the  Noun,  61-90. 

Without  a  Formative  Suffix,  6r.     Formation  of  the  Substantive  :  Primitives, 

62-64.      Denominatives,  65-70.     Formation  of  the  Adjective:    Primitives,  71- 

73.     Denominatives,  74-79.     Comparison,  80-90. 
Formation  of  Denominative  Verbs,  91-96. 

V 


Table  of  Contents 


Composition,  97-113. 

Of  Nouns,  99-108.     Of  Verbs,  109-113. 

(C.)    INFLECTION,  114-450 
Definition,  114. 

(a.)    inflection  of  the  noun,  115-305 

General  Principles,  1 15-127. 

Gender,  115-121.     Number,  122-124.     Case,  125-127.     Case  Endings,  128. 

The  Stem,  129-132. 

The  Substantive,  133-238. 

Stems  ill  -a-  {The  First  Declension),  133-141.  Stems  in  -O-  {The  Second 
Declension),  142-155.  Consonant  Stems  {The  Third  Declension),  156-180. 
Stems  'vci-\-{The  Third" Declension),  181-205.  Gender  of  Consonant  Stems 
and  -i-  Stems,  206-220.  Stems  in  -u-  {The  Fourth  Declension),  221-229. 
Stems  in  -e-  {The  Fifth  Declension),  230-238. 

The  Adjective,  239-268. 

Stems  in  -o-  and  -a-,  242-247.  Consonant  Stems,  248-253,  Stems  in  -i-, 
254-261.     Numeral  Adjectives,  262-268. 

The  Pronoun,  269-292. 

Personal  and  Reflexive,  269,  270.  Personal  and  Reflexive  Possessive,  271, 
272.  Demonstrative,  273-277.  Determinative,  278.  Pronoun  of  Identity, 
279,  280.     Intensive,  281.     Relative,  Interrogative,  and  Indefinite,  282-292. 

The  Adverb,  293-305. 

Nouns  as  Adverbs,    293-295.     Accusative.   296-298.     Ablative,    299-302. 
Locative,  303,     Other  Endings,  304.     Sentences  as  Adverbs,  305. 
(h.)    inflection  of  the  verb,  306-450 

General  Principles,  306-324. 

The  Stem,  307-310.  The  Person  Ending,  311-318.  Nouns  of  the  Verb, 
319.  Principal  Parts,  320.  Designation  of  the  Verb,  321.  Theme,  322.  Classes 
of  Verbs,  323,  324. 

Primitive  Verbs,  325-346. 

Inflection  of  sum,  326,  327.     possum,  328,  329.     do,  330.     inquam,  331. 
eo,  332,  333.     queo  and  nequed,  334.     cdo,  335,  336.     void,  nolo,  malo,  337- 
339.     fero,  340.     Verbs  in  -ere  (  The  Third  Conjui^uition),  rego,  341,  342.     Verbs 
in  -io,  -ere,  343.  34^.     capi6,  343-     aio.  345-     fio,  346. 
Denominative  Verbs,  347-352. 

Verbs  in  -are  ( The  First  Conjuoation),  laudo,  347.  348.     Verbs  in  -ere  ( Th^ 
Second  Conj nidation),  moned,  349,  350-     Verbs  in  -ire  {^Tht  Fourth  Conjuga- 
tion), z.\x6\b^  351,  352. 
Deponent  Verbs,  353,  354. 
Periphrastic  Forms,  355,  356. 

vi 


Table  of  Contents 


Defective  Verbs,  357-360. 

Formation  of  Stems,  361-401. 

Variable  Vowel,  361,  362.  The  Present  System,  363-368.  The  Perfect  Sys- 
tem, 369-381.  Short  or  Old  Forms  of  the  Perfect  System,  382-386.  Nouns 
of  the  Verb :  The  Infinitive,  387-390.  Gerundive  and  Gerund,  391.  Supine, 
392.  Present  Participle,  393.  Future  Participle,  394,  395.  Perfect  Participle, 
396-401. 

List  of  Verbs  arranged  according  to  the  Principal  Parts,  402-450. 

PART    SECOND:    SENTENCES,  451-1019 

Definitions,  451-468, 

The   Simple   Sentence,  451-453.     The   Subject,   454-459.     T!  t   Predicate, 
460,  461.     Enlargements  of  the  Simple  Sentence,  462-465.     Combination  of 
Sentences,  466.     The  Compound  Sentence,  467.     The  Complex  Sentence,  468. 
Agreement,  469-485. 

Of  the  Verb,  469-474.     Of  the  Substantive,  475.     Of  the  Adjective,  476-485. 

THE  SIMPLE  SENTENCE,  486-750 

(a.)    use  of  the  noun,  486-680 

Number  and  Gender,  486-489. 

Case,  490-668. 

Nominative,  490-494.     Vocative  Nominative  and  Vocative  Proper,  491-494. 

Accusative,  495-524.     Dative,  525-548.     Genitive,  549-595.     Ablative,  596- 

658. 
Use  of  Cases  with  Prepositions,  659-668. 
Use  of  Adverbs,  669-675. 
Use  of  Degrees  of  Comparison,  676-680. 

(b.)    use  of  the  verb,  681-750 
Voice,  681-691, 

Mood,  692-729. 

The  Indicative,  692-706.  In  Declarations,  692-694.  In  Questions,  695- 
706. 

The  Infinitive  of  Intimation,  707-709. 

The  Subjunctive,  710-724.  The  Subjunctive  in  Declarations:  /.  Of  De- 
sire:  Of  Wish,  710-712.  Of  Exhortation,  Direction,  713-715.  Of  Willingness, 
Concession,  716.  //,  Of  Action  Conceivable,  717-722.  The  Subjunctive  in 
Questions,  723,  724. 

The  Imperative,  725-729.     Of  Command,  725-727.     Of  Prohibition,  728, 
729. 
Tense,  730-750. 

Of  the  Indicative,  730-749.     Of  the  Subjunctive,  750. 


Table  of  Co7itents 

THE  COMPOUND  SENTENCE,  OR  COORDINATION,  751-782 
Without  a  Connective,  752-754- 
With  a  Connective,  ISS-IIS- 

Copulative  Conjunction,  755-763,     Disjunctive,  764-768.     Adversative,  769- 
774.     Other  Words  as  Connectives,  775. 
The  Intermediate  Coordinate  Sentence,  776-782. 

The  Subordinate  Ideaunindicated  by  the  Mood,  777,     The  Subordinate  Idea 
indicated  by  the  Subjunctive,  778-782. 

THE  COMPLEX  SENTENCE,  OR  SUBORDINATION,  783-1019 

Definitions  and  Classifications,  783,  784.    Primary  and  Secondary  Tenses,  785. 
Mood  of  the  Subordinate  Sentence,  7S6-794. 

The  Indicative,  787.     The  Subjunctive  :  In  Indirect  Discourse,  and  in  Cases 
of  Attraction,  788-793.     Of  Repeated  Action,  794. 
Tense  of  the  Subordinate  Sentence,  795-S09. 

Of  the  Indicative,  795-797-     Oi  the  Subjunctive,  798-809.     Sequence  of 
Tenses,  802-809. 
The  Indirect  Question,  810-819. 
The  Relative  Sentence,  820-844. 
The  Conjunctive  Particle  Sentence,  845-945. 

Introduced  by  quod,  846-S52.  cum,  853-864.  quoniam,  865,  866.  quam, 
867-871.  quamquam,  872.  873_.  quamvis,  874-876.  antequam,  prius- 
quam,  877-880.  postquam,  ubf,  ut,  cum  primum,  simul  atque,  881-886. 
ut,  887-905.  quo,  906-908.  quominus,  909.  quin,  910-915.  dum,  donee, 
quoad,  quamdiu,  916-922.  quando,  923-925.  si,  926-942.  ctsi,  tametsi, 
etiamsi,  943.  quasi,  tamquam  si,  ut  or  velut  si,  944,  945. 
Nouns  of  the  Verb,  946-1019. 

The  Infinitive,  946-986.     The  Gerundive  and  Gerund,  987-1003.     The  Su- 
pine, 1004-1008.     The  Participle,  1009-1019. 

APPENDIX,  1020-1175 

Indirect  Discourse,  1020-1040 
Use  of  Pronouns,  1041-1072. 
Numerals,  1073-1083. 
Prosody,  1084- 11 37. 

Rules  of  Quantity,  1084-1108.     Figures  of  Prosody,  I109-1117.     Versifica 
tion,  1 118-1 137.     Dactylic  Hexameter,  1131-II37. 
Order  of  Words,  1138-1165. 
The  Calendar,  1166-1174. 
Abbreviations  of  Proper  Names,  1175. 
Index  of  Important  Verbs. 
General  Index. 

viii 


LATIN     GRAMMAR 

I.  Latin  Grammar  has  two  parts.  I.  The  first  part 
treats  of  words:  (A.)  their  sound;  (B.)  their  formation; 
(C.)  their  inflection.  II.  The  second  part  shows  how 
words  are  joined  together  in  sentences. 


Part  First— Words 


PARTS  OF  SPEECH 

2.  The  principal  kinds  of  words  or  PARTS  OF  SPEECH  are 
NounSy  VerbSj  and  Conjunctions. 

3.  Nouns  are  Substantive  or  Adjective. 

4.  Nouns  Substantive,  commonly  called  Substantives, 
are  divided,  as  to  meaning,  into  Concrete  and  Abstract. 

5.  Concrete  Substantives  denote  persons  or  things.  Concrete 
Substantives  are  subdivided  into  Proper  Natnes,  which  denote  indi- 
vidual persons  or  things:  as,  Cicero,  Cicero;  Roma,  Rome;  and  Common 
Names,  otherwise  called  Appellatives,  which  denote  one  or  more  of  a 
class:  as,  homo,  man;  taurus,  bull. 

6.  Appellatives  which  denote  a  collection  of  single  things  are  called 
Collectives :  as,  turba,  crowd ;  exercitus,  army. 

7.  Abstract  Substantives  denote  qualities,  states,  conditions: 
as,  rubor,  redness;  ^.^^}^\\.2LS^  fairness ;  solitudo,  lotteli7iess. 

8.  Nouns  Adjective,  commonly  called  Adjectives,  at- 
tached to  substantives,  describe  persons  or  things  :  as,  ruber, 
red;  aequus,  fair;  solus,  alone. 


9- 1 8]  Words:  Sound 

9.  Pronouns  are  words  of  universal  application  which  serve 
as  substitutes  for  nouns. 

Thus,  taurus,  bull,  names,  and  ruber,  red,  describes,  particular  things : 
but  ego,  /,  is  universally  applicable  to  any  speaker,  and  meus,  mine,  to 
anything  belonging  to  any  speaker. 

10.  Adverbs  are  mostly  cases  of  nouns  used  to  denote  manner, 
place,  time,  or  degree:  as,  subito,  suddenly;  foras,  out  0/  doors,  diu,  long; 
valde,  mightily,  very. 

11.  Prepositions  are  adverbs  which  are  used  to  modify  as  prefixes 
the  meaning  of  verbs,  or  to  define  more  nicely  the  meaning  of  cases,  as, 
voco,  I  call,  evoco,  I  call  out;  ex  urbe,  from  town. 

12.  Verbs  are  words  which  denote  action,  includinf]^  exist- 
ence or  condition  :  as,  regit,  he  guides ;  est,  Jic  is ;  latet,  he  is 
hid. 

13.  Conjunctions  connect  sentences,  nouns,  or  verbs:  as, 
et,  and ;  sed,  but. 

14.  Interjections  are  cries  which  express  feeling,  and  are  not 
usually  a  part  of  the  sentence  :  as,  a,  ah;  heu,  alas. 

15.  There  is  no  Article  in  Latin  :  thus,  mensa  may  denote  table,  a 
table,  or  the  table. 


A.  Sound 
ALPHABET 

16.  The  sounds  of  the  Latin  language  are  denoted 
by  twenty-one  letters :  ABCDEFGHIKLMNO 
P  Q  R  S  T  V  X. 

17.  (19.)  In  Cicero's  time  two  other  letters  were  already  in  use  in 
Greek  words ;  these  were  always  called  by  their  Greek  names,  and  were 
placed  at  the  end  of  the  alphabet ;  they  are  Y  and  Z. 

18.  (21.)  The  characters  I  and  V  represent  not  only  the  two  vowels 
i  and  u,  but  also  their  cognate  consonants,  named  consonant  i  and  con- 
sonant u,  and  equivalent  to  the  English/  and  w  respectively. 

2 


Vowels  [19-27 

19.  (23.)  In  school-books  and  most  texts  of  the  authors,  the  vowel 
u  is  printed  U,  u,  and  the  consonant  V,  v. 

20.  (25.)  The  alphabet  represents  a  series  of  sounds,  ranging  from 
the  fullest  vowel  sound  a,  to  a  mere  explosion,  as  c,  t,  or  p.  These 
sounds  are  roughly  divided  into  vowels  and  consonants. 


VOWELS 

21.  (26.)  The  vowels,  a,  e,  i,  o,  u  (y),  are  either  long 
or  short.  The  sound  of  a  long  vowel  is  considered  to 
be  twice  the  length  of  that  of  a  short. 

22.  (31.)  In  school-books,  a  long  vowel  is  indicated  by  a  horizontal 
line  over  it:  as,  ara,  altar.  A  short  vowel  is  sometimes  indicated  by  a 
curved  mark:  as,  per,  through;  but  this  mark  is  unnecessary  if  long 
vowels  are  systematically  marked.  A  long  vowel  which  is  sometimes 
shortened  in  pronunciation  is  called  common,  and  is  marked  ^ :  as, 
mihi,  to  me. 

PRONUNCIATION   OF   VOWELS 

23-  (33-)  The  long  vowels  are  pronounced  thus :  a  as  in 
father ;  e  as  e  in  the  French  ete ;  i  as  in  machine;  o  nearly  as 
in  tone;  u  as  in  ritle. 

24.  (34.)  The  short  vowels  are  pronounced  thus:  a  as  in 
the  first  syllable  of  aha;  e  nearly  as  in  step;  i  as  \n  pit,  but 
with  a  little  more  of  an  ee  sound;  o  as  in  obey;  u  as  in  pull. 

25.  (35.)  The  sound  of  y  (short  or  long)  is  intermediate  between  u 
and  i,  like  the  PVench  wand  German  it. 

26.  (36.)  The  names  of  the  English  letters  a  and  o  are  a  pretty  close 
approximation  to  the  Latin  sounds  e  and  o.  But  the  English  a  and  o 
are  both  diphthongs,  a  having  a  vanishing  sound  of  eeinot  heard  m  the 
e  of  ete),  and  0  of  00,  while  the  Latin  e  or  o  has  one  sustained  sound. 

CLASSIFICATION    OF   VOWELS 

27*  (37-)  Vowels  are  divided  into  open  and  close.  The 
most  open  vowel  is  a;  less  open  are  o  and  e.  The  close 
vowels  are  u,  y,  and  i. 

3 


2^-35]  Words:  Sound 

DIPHTHONGS 

28.  (39.)  The  combined  sound  of  an  open  vowel  and 
a  closer  one  is  called  a  Diphthong.  All  diphthongs  are 
long. 

29.  (42.)  The  common  diphthongs  are  pronounced  thus: 
au  like  on  in  house;  ae  like  ai  in  aisle;  oe  like  oi  in  spoil. 

30.  (43.)  The  uncommon  diphthongs  are  pronounced  thus :  ui,  like 
oo-ee,  eu  like  eh-00,  both  rapidly  uttered  ;  ei  as  in  eight. 


CONSONANTS 

PRONUNCIATION   OF  CONSONANTS 

31.  (44.)  Most  of  the  consonants  are  pronounced  as 
in  English.     The  following  points  must  be  noticed: 

32.  (45.)  b  before  s  or  t  has  the  sound  of  p :  as,  abs,  pronounced  aps; 
obtero,  pronounced  optero.  c  is  always  like  k.  %  as  in  garden,  gate, 
give;  never  as  in  gentle.  Consonant  i  has  the  sound  of  the  English 
consonant  J. 

33'  (46)  m  at  the  end  of  a  word  is  hardly  sounded,  and  in  verse 
when  it  conies  before  a  vowel  usually  disappears  with  the  preceding 
vowel,  n  before  c,  g,  q,  or  x,  called  "  ;/  adulterinum  "  or  "  spurious  n," 
has  a  guttural  sound,  thus,  no  as  in  uncle;  ng  as  in  angle,  ngu  as  in 
sanguine;  nqu  as  nkw  in  inkwiper ;  nx  as  in  lynx,  qu  is  like  the  Eng- 
lish qu. 

34.  (47.)  s  as  in  sin,  not  with  the  sound  of  z,  as  in  ease.  Care  should 
also  be  taken  not  to  sound  final  s  asr-.  su,  when  it  makes  one  syllable 
with  the  following  vowel,  is  like  siv  in  su.<cet.  t  sounds  always  as  in 
time,  never  as  in  nation,  v  is  like  the  English  w.  x  is  a  double  con- 
sonant, standing  for  cs,  and  so  sounded  ;  never  as^j  or.^^. 

35.  (48.)  When  consonants  are  doubled,  each  consonant  is  distinctly 
sounded:  thus,  terra,  earth,  sounded  tcr-ra,  not  "ter-a";  an-nus,  year^ 
not  "  an-us."     But  11  does  not  differ  very  materially  from  1. 

4 


Consonants 


[36-4 


36.  (49.)  ch  is  thought  to  have  been  pronounced  like  kh  in  blockhead, 
ph  as  in  uphill,  and  th  as  in  hothouse.  But  in  practice  ch  is  usually 
sounded  as  in  the  German  inachen  or  ich,  ph  as  in  graphic,  and  th  as 
\n  pathos. 

CLASSIFICATION    OF    CONSONANTS 

37.  (50.)  Consonants  may  be  classed  in  three  ways,  thus: 

38.  (51.)  In  respect  of  continuity  of  sound  :  consonants  which  admit 
prolongation  are  called  Co?itmuous  soiaids :  as,  1,  m,  s;  those  which  do 
not  are  called  Momentary  sounds.  Mutes,  or  Explosives :  as,  t,  p. 

39.  (52.)  In  respect  of  intonation:  consonants  which  have  voice  are 
called  Sonartts:  as,  m,  b;  consonants  which  are  mere  puffs  without 
voice  are  called  Surds:  as,  c,  t,  p. 

40*  (53-)  In  respect  of  the  organs  of  voice  chiefly  employed  :  conso- 
nants are  divided  into  Guttural,  or  throat  sounds,  as,  g,  c;  Lingual,  or 
tongue  sounds,  as,  1,  d;  and  Labial,  or  lip  sounds,  as,  m,  b.  Consonant 
i  is  Palatal  Siud  i  Labiodefital. 

41.  (54.)  The  threefold  classification  is  shown  in  the  following 
table : 


Name  from 
Vocal  Organs 

Continuous  Sounds 

Momentary,  or 

Sonant 

Surd 

Mutes 

Semivoivel 

Nasal 

Spirant 

Sonant 

Snrd 

Guttural 

n  adul- 
terinum 

h 

g 

c,  q,  k 

Palatal 

i 

Lingual 

1,  r 

n 

s 

d 

t 

Labiodental 

f 

Labial 

V 

m 

b 

P 

42-47]  Words:  Sound 

SYLLABLES 
42*  (^55-)  A  word  has  as  many  syllables  as  it  has  separate 
vowels  or  diphthongs.     The  last  syllable  but  one  is  called  the 
Penult;  the  last  syllable  but  two  is  called  the  Antepenult, 


LENGTH   OF   VOWELS 

43*  (157-)  A  vowel  before  another  vowel  or  h  is  short:  as, 

eos;  eveho;  fuit,  fuimus,  adnuit;  compare  delabor  and  deambulo;  is, 
imus,  itis,  and  eo,  eunt;  minutus  and  minuo. 

44.  (165  f.)  All  vowels  are  long  which  are  weakened 
from  a  diphthong,  or  which  are  the  result  of  contrac- 
tion: as, 

caedo,  concido ;  aestimo,  existimo ;  ^tibiicen,  tibicen :  ^aliius,  alius. 

45.  (167.)  A  vowel   is  long   before  nf,  ns,  or  consonant  i; 

often  before  gn:  as, 

infans ;  Maia  ;  aid,  aiunt,  aiebam ;  eius  ;  Seius  ;  Pompeius  ;  plebeius 
(but  not  in  compounds  of  iugum :  as.  biiugus);  benignus. 


LENGTH   OF   SYLLABLES 

46.  (168.)  A  syllable  is  long  if  its  vowel  is  long,  or 
if  its  vowel  is  followed  by  two  consonants  or  by  x  or 
z:  as, 

diicebas  ;  volvunt.  In  ducebas  both  the  vowels  and  the  syllables  are 
\on^\  in  volvunt  the  vowels  are  short,  but  the  syllables  are  long;  in 
cases  like  the  last  the  syllables  (not  the  vowels)  are  said  to  be  long  by 
position,  h  does  not  count  as  a  consonant,  and  qu  has  the  value  of  a 
single  consonant  only  :  thus,  in  adhuc  and  aqua  the  first  syllable  is  short. 

47.  (169.)  But  a  syllable  with  a  short  vowel  before  a  mute 
or  f  followed  by  1  or  r  is  not  long:  as,  tenebrae.  In  verse, 
however,  such  syllables  are  sometimes  regarded  as  long. 

6 


Roots  and  Stems  [48-54 

ACCENT 

48.  (i  70.)  Words  of  two  syllables  have  the  accent  on 
the  penult:  as, 

homo;  a'cer. 

49.  (171.)  Words  of  more  than  two  syllables  have 
the  accent  on  the  penult  when  that  syllable  is  long; 
otherwise  on  the  antepenult :  as, 

palus'ter,  onus'tus  (46) ;  muli'ebris,  gen'etrix  (47) ;  at-'bores,  ar  butus, 
gladiolus. 

50.  (172.)  A  short  penult  retains  the  accent  in  the  genitive  and  voc- 
ative with  a  single  i  from  stems  in  -io-  (150,  152) :  as,  genitive,  consi  li ; 
impe'rl;  genitive  or  vocative,  Vergili;  Mercu'ri.  For  calefacis,  etc., 
see  III. 

51.  (179.)  Enclitics  are  words  which  have  no  accent  of 
their  own,  but  are  pronounced  as  a  part  of  the  word  preced- 
ing. The  word  before  the  enclitic  has  the  accent  on  the  last 
syllable. 

The  commonest  enclitics  are  -que,  -ne,  (-n),  -ve,  -ce,  (-c) :  as,  Latium- 
que  ;  Latioque  ;  armaque  ;  Hyrcanfsve  Arabisve  ;  istice  or  istic,  hicine. 


B.    Formation 

52.  (180.)  Formation  is  the  process  by  which  stems 
are  formed  from  roots  or  from  other  stems. 

ROOTS 

53.  (183.)  A  Root  is  a  monosyllable  which  gives  the  fun- 
damental meaning  to  a  word  or  group  of  words. 

54.  (184.)  A  root  is  not  a  real  word  ;  it  is  neither  a  noun,  naming 
something,  nor  a  verb,  denoting  action.  Thus  \u%;-^  yoke,  does  not 
mean  a  yoke  nor  I  yoke :  it  merely  suggests  something  about  yoking. 

7 


55-6o]  Words:  Formation 

The  root  becomes  a  real  word  only  when  an  inflection  ending  is  added, 
or,  more  commonly,  both  a  formative  suffix  and  an  inflection  ending : 
as,  iug-u-m,  a  yoke.  Roots  are  conveniently  indicated  by  the  sign  V '. 
as,  Vt  e  g-,  to  be  read,  "  root  t  e  g-." 

55.  (187.)  A  root  sometimes  has  two  or  more  forms:  as,  fid-, 
f  o  e  d-,  f  i  d-,  trust ;  r  e  g-,  r  e  g-,  guide. 

Thus,  fid-  is  found  in  fld-us,  trusty,  fid-ucia,  eonjidence,  fid-ere, 
put  trust  in;  foe  d-  in  foed-us,  //^<^^  of  faith,  foed-eratus,  bound  by  a 
pledge  of  faith;  fid-  in  fid-es,/^;//'//,  fi^-t\\s,  faithful,  fid-elitas,/<2////- 
fulness,  per-fid-usy  faithless,  per-M-ia.,  faithlessness. 

56.  (189.)  A  root  or  a  part  of  a  root  is  sometimes  doubled  in  form- 
ing a  word;  this  is  called  Reduplication:  as,  mur-mur,  murmur;  ul-ul- 
SLT^^yell. 

PRESENT  STEMS   AS    ROOTS 

57.  (190.)  Many  nouns  are  formed  from  the  present  stems 
of  verbs,  which  take  the  place  of  roots.  Stems  thus  used  are 
mostly  those  of  verbs  in  -are  and  -Ire. 

Thus,  from  ora-,  stem  of  orare,  speak,  are  formed  ora-tor,  speaker, 
and  6ra-ti6,  speech. 

STEMS 

58.  (195.)  A  Stem  is  that  part  of  a  word  which  contains  its 

meaning,  and  is  either  a  root  alone  or  more  commonly  a  root 

with  an  addition  called  a  Formative  Suffix. 

Thus,  in  the  word  duels,  leader  s,  the  stem,  which  is  identical  with 
the  root  d  u  c-,  means  leader ;  in  ductoris,  leader  s,  the  stem  is  formed 
by  the  formative  suffix  -tor-,  denoting  the  agent,  attached  to  the  \/  d  u  c-. 

59.  (196.)  New  stems  are  formed  by  adding  a  suffix  to  a 
stem.  Thus,  from  orator-,  speaker,  is  formed,  by  the  addition  of 
the  sufifix  -io-,  a  new  stem  6rat6r-io-,  N.  oratorius,  speaker  s. 

PRIMITIVES   AND    DENOMINATIVES 

60.  (198.)  A  Stem  or  word  formed  directly  from  a  root  or  a 
verb  stem  is  called  a  Primitive.  A  stem  or  word  formed  from 
a  noun  stem  is  called  a  Denominative. 

8 


Formative  Suffixes  of  the  Noun         [61-63 

Primitives:  from  V th^yVt-^-^ guide :  rex,  stem  reg-,  kmg ;  regnum, 
stem  reg-no-,  kingdom  ;  rectus,  stem  vec-tQ- ^ guided ;  regere,  stem  reg-e-, 
guide.  From  ora-,  stem  of  orare,  speak:  orator,  stem  ora-tor-,  speaker; 
oratio,  stem  ora-tion-,  speech. 

Denominatives:  from  noun  stem  reg-,  king:  regina,  stem  reg-ina-, 
queen;  regius,  stem  reg-io-,  regalis,  stem  reg-ali-,  royal.  From  oration-, 
speech:  oratiuncula,  stem  oratiun-cula-,  little  speech.  From  reg-no-, 
kitigdom:  regnare,  stem  regna-,  to  rule. 


(A.)     FORMATION   OF   THE   NOUN 

WITHOUT   A    FORMATIVE   SUFFIX 

61.  (199.)  Some  roots  are  used  as  noun  stems  :  as,  due-,  N.  dux,  leader 
(\/duc-,  lead)\  reg-,  N.  rex,  king  {Vve^-,  guide);  particularly  at  the 
end  of  a  compound:  as,  tubi-cin-,  N.  tubicen,  trumpeter  (tuba-,  v'can-, 
play). 

WITH  A  FORMATIVE  SUFFIX 

I.    THE    SUBSTANTIVE 

(A.)     PRIMITIVES 
I.      THE  AGENT 

62.  (204  f.)  The  sufflxes  -tor-,  feminine  -tri-x,  are  used  to 

denote  the  Agent:  as, 

5ra-t6r-,  N.  ora-tor,  spokesman,  speaker  (6ra-re) ;  vena-trix,  huntress 
(vena-ri).  Workmen  and  tradesmen:  zx^.-\.ox^ ploughman,  pas-tor,  shep- 
herd, pic-tor,  painter,  su-tor,  shoemaker.  Government  officials  :  cen- 
sor, appraiser,  censor;  impera-tor,  commander,  prae-tor  {leader),  praetor, 
dicta-tor,  lie-tor.  Of  the  law :  accusa-tor,  accuser,  spon-sor,  bondsman, 
tu-tor,  guardia?i. 

II.      THE   ACTION 

63.  (212.)  The  sufBxes  -io-,  -min-,  -i-6n-,  -ti-6n-,  -tu-, 
-or-,  are  used  to  denote  the  Action :  as, 

9 


64-66J 


Words:  Formal  ion 


Stem 

NOMINATIVE 

From 

od-io- 

odium,  hate 

v^od-,  hate 

cri-min- 

crimen,  charge 

\^cer-,  cri-,  sift 

leg-ion- 

legio,  pick,  legion 

VlfiZ'i  pick 

ac-tion- 

acti5,  action 

•      VaLg-,do 

ques-tu- 

questus,  complaint 

\/ques-,  complain 

fur-6r- 

furor,  rage 

v/  f  u  r-,  rave 

III.      THE   INSTRUMENT   OR    MEANS 

64.  (238,)  The  suffixes   -men-to-,  -tro-,  -cro-  or  -culo-, 

-I0-,  -bro-  or  -bulo-,  are  used  to  denote  the  Listrunicnt  or 
Means:  as, 

Stem  Nominative  From 

orna-mento-        ornamentum,  embellishment  6rna-re,  embellish 

ara-tro-  aratrum,  plough  ara-re,  plough 

ful-cro-  fulcrum,  coicch-leg  v^f  u  1  c-,  prop 

po-culo-  poculum,  drinkiiig-ciip  v'p  6-,  drink 

vinc-ulo-  vincn\umy  boftd  V wine-,  bind 

cri-bro-  cnhtwmy  sieve  \^cer-,  cri-,  si/t 

pa-bulo-  pabulum,  /odder .  Vpa.-,  feed 

(B.)     DENOMINATIVES 


I.      THE   QUALITY 


65.  (246.)  The  suffixes  -io-,  mon-io-,  -ia- ;  -tat-,  -tu-din-, 

are  used  to  denote  the  Quality:  as, 


Stem 
conleg-io- 
testi-monio- 
audac-ia- 
clvi-tat- 
magni-tudin- 


NOMINATIVE 

conlegium,  colleagueship 
testimonium,  evidence 
audacia,  boldness 
civitas,  citizenship 
magnitude,  greatness 


From 
conlega-,  N,  conlega,  colleague 
testi-,  N.  testis,  witness 
audaci-,  N.  audax,  bold 
civi-,  N.  civis,  citizen 
magno-,  N.  magnus,  greet t 


II.      THE  PLACE 

66.  (266.)  Neuters  with  the  suffixes  -torio-,  -ario- 
-eto-,  are  often  used  to  denote  the  Place:  as, 

10 


ill 


The  Sti  b  Stan  live :  Diminutives  [67-70 

Stem  Nominative  From 

audi-torio-  audl-torium,  lecture-room  auditor-,  N.  auditor,  hearer 

aer-ario-  aerarium,  treasury  aer-,  N.  aes,  money 

ov-ili-  ovJle,  sheep/old  ovi-,  N.  ovis,  sheep 

murt-eto-  murteta,  myrtle-groves  murto-,  N.  murtus,  myrtle 


III.      DIMINUTIVES 

67.  (267.)  The  suffixes  -I0-,  -la,  or  -cu-lo-,  -cu-la-,  are 
used  to  form  substantives  with  a  Diinimitive  meaning.  Di- 
minutives may  denote: 

68.  (268.)  Actual  small ness  :  as.  securicula,  a  little  hatchet ;  ventulus, 
a  bit  of  wind ;  specula,  a  ray  of  hope. 

69.  (269.)  Imputed  smallness:  implymg,  (i?.)  admiration,  affection,  or 
compassion;  ((^.)  contempt  or  irony.  This  diminutive,  which  usually 
serves  to  add  point  to  sentences  themselves  of  a  playful,  patronizing,  or 
slurring  character,  is  very  hard  to  translate;  little  and  small  are  often 
inadequate;  old  or  poor  will  sometimes  do;  but  usually  recourse  must 
be  had  to  free  translations  adapted  to  the  particular  context :  as, 

oratiuncula,  a  gem  of  a  speech,  an  attempt  at  a  speech  ;  matercula,  a7t 
anxious  niother,  poor  mamma,  dear  mamma ;  lectulus,  ones  own  little 
bed ;  anellus  aureolus,  a  gay  gold  ring  ;  Graecull,  our  Greek  cousins,  the 
good  people  in  Greece  ;  Graeculus,  a  regit  lar  Greek,  your  gentleman  from 
Greece ;  muliercula,  a  pretty  girl,  a  lady  gay,  one  of  the  gentler  sex,  a 
mere  woman,  an  unprotected  fe7nale,  a  maiden  all  forlorn ;  lacrimula,  a 
wee  tear,  a  crocodile  tear  ;  volpecula.  Master  Reynard,  dan  Russel ;  ton- 
stricula,  a  common  barber  girl ;  popellus,  rabble ;  nummuli,  filthy  lucre ; 
mercedula,  an  apology  for  pay  ;  ratiuncula,  a  first-rate  reason  ;  cauponula, 
a  low  tavern. 

IV.      PATRONYMICS 

70.  (279.)  Patronymics,  or  proper  names  which  denote  descent  from 
a  father  or  ancestor,  have  stems  in  -da-  (N.  -de-s),  F'.  -d-  (N,  -s).  These 
are  chiefly  Greek  names  used  in  poetry. 

Priami-da-,  N.  Prlami-de-s,  sciofi  of  Priam's  house ;  Tantali-d-,  N. 
Tantali-s,  daughter  of  Tantalus.  Peli-de-s  (Peleu-s) ;  Aenea-de-s  (Ae- 
nea-).  F.  sometimes  -Ine  or  -one;  Neptunine  (Neptuno-);  Acrisione 
(Acrisio-J. 

II 


71-75]  Words:  Forma  Hon 

II.     THE   ADJECTIVE 
(A.)    PRIMITIVES 

71.  (280.)  Primitive  adjectives  may  usually  be  divided  into  active  and 
passive;  but  the  same  suffix  often  has  either  an  active  or  a  passive 
meaning.  Under  primitive  adjectives  belong  the  participles;  but  these 
will  be  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  verb. 

I.      WITH    AN   ACTIVE   MEANING 

72.  (281.)  The  suffixes  -bun-do-, -cun -do,  -cir,  -u-lo-,  and 
-do-,  are  used  to  form  adjectives,  generally  of  an  Active  mean- 
ing:  as. 


Stem 

NOMINATIVE 

From 

trem-ebundo- 

tremebundus,  quivering 

v'  t  r  e  m-,  quiver 

fa-cundo- 

f&cundus,  eloquent 

\/fa-,  speak 

mina-ci- 

minax,  threatening 

mina-ri,  threaten 

pat-ulo- 

patulus,  spreading 

V'pat,  spread 

cal-ido- 

calidus,  warm 

v'  c  a  1-,  "Warm 

II.      WITH    A    PASSIVE   MEANING 

73.  (291.)  The  suffixes  -ili-  and  -bili-  are  used  to  form 
adjectives,  generally  of  a  Passive  meaning:  as, 

Stem  Nominative  From 

fac-ili-  faicilis,  easy  to  do  Vfa.c-,do 

ama-bili-  amabilis,  lovable  ama-re,  lorite 

(B.).  DENOMINATIVES 

74.  (298.)  Denominative  adjectives  may  be  divided  into  such  as  de- 
note: I.  Material  ox  Resemblance.  II.  Appurtenance:  implying  some- 
times possession,  often  fitness,  conformity,  character,  or  origin.  III. 
Supply.  IV.  Diminutives.  V.  Comparatives  and  Superlatives;  a  few 
of  these  are  primitive. 

I.      MATERIAL  OR   RESEMBLANCE 

75.  (299.)  The  suffixes  -eo-  and  -n-eo-  are  used  to  form 
adjectives  denoting  Material  or  Resemblance :  as, 

12 


The  Adjective:    Denominatives  [_1^-19 


Stem 

NOMINATIVE 

From 

aur-eo- 

aureus,  golden 

auro-,  N.  s^^.x\^m^  gold 

ahe-neo- 

aheneus,  bronze 

*ahes-,  N.  aes,  bronze 

II.      APPURTENANCE 

76.  (302.)  The  suffixes  -io-,  ivo-;  -timo-,  -li-,  -no-;  -bri-; 
-co-,  -ensi-,  are  used  to  form  adjectives  denoting  Belonging 
to:  as. 


Stem  Nominative 

reg-io-  regius,  ki7igly 

aest-Ivo-  aestivus,  summer  s 

mari-timo-  maritimus,  of  the  sea 

humi-li-  humilis,  lowly 

reg-ali-  regalis,  of  a  king 

civ-ili-  civilis,  cttizejis 

can-ino-  caninus,  of  a  dog 

mulie-bri-  muliebris,  womanly 

civi-co-  civicus,  citizen  s 

circ-ensi-  circensis,  of  the  circus 


From 
reg-,  N.  rex,  king 
aestat-,  N.  aestas,  swnmer 
mari-,  N.  mare,  sea 
humo-,  N.  humus,  ground 
reg-,  N.  rex,  king 
civi-,  N.  civis,  citizen 
can-,  N.  canis,  dog 
mulier-,  N.  mulier,  woman 
civi-,  N.  civis,  citizen 
circo-,  N.  circus,  circus 


77*  (305  ;  318  f.)  Here  belong  many  adjectives  from  proper  names:  as. 
Stem  Nominative  From 

Corinth-io-        Corinthius,  CoriJithian    Corintho-,  N.  Corinthus,  Corinth 
Rom-ano-  Romanus,  RomaJt  Roma-,  N.  Roma,  Rome 

Ciceron-iano-    Ciceronianus,  Cicero  s      Ciceron-,  N.  Cicero,  Cicero 
Plaut-ino-  Plautinus,  of  Plautus       Plauto-,  N.  Plautus,  Plautus 

III.      SUPPLY 

78.  (331.)  The  suffixes  -to-,  -lento-,  and  -oso-  are  used  to 

form  adjectives  denoting  Supplied  or  FurnisJied  ivith :  as, 

Stem  Nominative  From 

barba-to-  barbatus,  bearded  barba-,  N.  barba,  beard 

vlno-lento-  vinolentus,  drunken  vino-,  N.  vinum,  wi7ie 

ann-oso-  ainnbsus,  full  of  years  anno-,  N.  axinus,  year 


IV.     diminutives 
79.  (339.)  Diminutives  are  formed  from  adjectives,  as  from 
substantives  (67) :  as, 

13 


80-83]  Words:  Formation 

-I0-,  N.  -lu-s  :  parvo-lu-s,  or  parvu-lu-s,  smallish  (parvo-) ;  vet-ulus,  lit- 
tle old  (vet-) ;  bel-lu-s,  bomiy  (bono-) ;  -culo-.  N.  -culu-s :  pauper-culo-,  N. 
pauper-culu-s,  poorish  (pauper-) ;  levi-culu-s,  somewhat  vain  (levi-). 


V.      COMPARATIVES   AND   SUPERLATIVES 

80.  (342.)  Comparatives  and  superlatives  are  usually  formed  from 
the  stem  of  the  positive:  as,  dignior,  worthier,  dignissimus,  worthiest, 
from  digno-,  stem  of  dignus.  A  few  are  formed  directly  from  roots: 
thus,  vciSAOx^  greater,  and  maximus,^r^^/^j-/,  are  formed  from  the  \/mag-, 
and  not  from  magno-,  stem  of  magnus. 

•(I.)      COMPARATIVE  -ior,    SUPERLATIVE   -issimus 

81.  (343.)  The  nominative  of  comparative  adjectives 
ends  usually  in  -ior,  and  that  of  superlatives  in  -issi- 
mus :  thus, 


Comparative 

Superlative 

Masc,             Fern. 

Neut.                    Masc.             Fern.              Neut. 

-ior              -ior 

-ius               -issimus       -issima       -issimum 

Positive 

Comparative                  Superlative 

altus,  high 

altior,  higher            altissimus,  highest 

tristis,  sad 

tristior,  sadder          tristissimus,  saddest 

(2.)     SUPERLATIVE  -rimus 

82.  (344.)  Adjectives  with  the  nominative  in  -er  have  the 
nominative  of  the  superlative  like  the  nominative  of  the  posi- 
tive with  -rimus  added  :  as, 

Positive  Comparative  Superlative 

pauper,  poor  pauperior,  poorer  pauperrimus,  poorest 

acer,  sharp  acrior,  sharper  acerriraus,  sharpest 

(3.)    superlative  -limus 

83.  (345.)  humilis,  difficilis,  and  facilis, 

similis,  dissimilis,  and  g^racilis, 

have  the  nominative  of  the  superlative  in  -limus,  following  1  of  the 
stem  :  as, 

14 


The  Adjective:    Comparison  [84-87 

Positive  Comparative  Superlative 

humilis,  lowly  humilior,  lowlier  humillimus,  lowliest 

PECULIARITIES  OF   COMPARISON 

84.  (353.)  Some  positives  have  a  comparative  or  superla- 
tive, or  both,  from  a  different  form  of  the  stem :  such  are, 

frugl,  thrifty  frugalior  frugalissimus 

nequam,  7iaitghty  nequior  nequissimus 

iuvenis,  young  iunior  (natu  minimus) 

senex,  old  senior  (natii  maximus) 

magnus,  great  maior  maximus 

beneficus,  kindly  beneficentior  beneficentissimus 

honorificus,  complimentary     honorificentior  honorificentissimus 

magnificus,  ^r«;z^  magnificentior  magnificentissimus 

85.  (355.)  Some  positives  have  a  comparative  or  superla- 
tive, or  both,  from  a  wholl)^  different  stem:  such  are, 

bonus,  good  melior  optimus 

malus,  bad  peior  pessimus 

multus,  much  plus  (sing.  Ne.  only)  plurimus 

parvus,  little  minor  minimus 

86.  (356.)  Four  comparatives  in-erior  or  -terior,  denoting  place,  have 
two  forms  of  the  superlative;  the  nominative  masculine  singular  of  the 
positive  is  not  in  common  use: 

exterior  extimus,  or  extremus,  outermost 

inferior  infimus,  or  Imus,  lowest. 

posterior  postumus,  lastborn,  or  postremus,  last 

superior  summus,  or  supremus,  highest 

87.  (357.)  Six,  denoting  place,  have  the  positive  only  as  an 

adverb  or  preposition: 

cis,  this  side  citerior  citimus,  hitherest 

de,  down  deterior  deterrimus,  lowest,  worst 

in,  in  interior  intimus,  inmost 

prae,  before  prior  primus,  y?r^/ 

prope,  near  propior  proximus,  nearest 

(ills),  beyond  ulterior  vXWvaVi^y  furthest 
ocior,  swifter,  ocissimus,  has  no  positive. 

J5 


88-92]  Words :  Formation 

88.  (358.)  Some  have  a  superlative,  but  no  comparative:  as,  falsus, 
false,  inclutus,  famed,  meritus,  deservittg,  novus,  neiu ;  vetus,  veterri- 
mus,  old,  sacer,  sacerrimus,  sacred. 

89.  (360.)  Many  adjectives  have  no  suffixes  of  comparison, 
and  supply  the  place  of  these  by  magis,  more,  and  maxime, 
most:  as,  mirus,  strange,  magis  mirus,  maxime  mirus. 
Many  adjectives,  from  their  meaning,  do  not  admit  of  com- 
parison. 

COMPARATIVE   AND   SUPERLATIVE   ADVERBS 

90.  (361.)  Adverbs  derived    from  adjectives  have  as  their 

comparative  the  accusative  singular  neuter  of  the  comparative 

of  the  adjective ;  the  superlative  is  formed  like  that  of  the 

adjective,  but  ends  in  -e:  as, 

alte,  071  high  altius  altissime 

acriter,  sharply  acrius  acerrime 

facile,  easily  facilius  facillime 


(B.)     FORMATION  OF  DENOMINATIVE  VERBS 
91-  (3^5-)  Denominative  verb  stems  have  present  in- 
finitives in  -are,  -ere,  or  -Ire  (-ari,  -eri,  or  -Iri),  and 
are  formed  from  noun  stems  of  all  endings:  as, 

Verb  From  Noun  I  Vkkb  From  Noun 

fuga-re,  rout         fuga-,  N.  fuga        j  flore-re,  blossom     flor-,  N.  flos 
loca-re,  place       loco-,  N.  locus        |  sorde-re,  be  dirty  sordi-,  N.  sordes 
nomina-re,  7iame  ndmin-,  N.  nomen  j  puni-re,  publish      poena-,  N.  poena 
leva-re,  lighten    levi-,  N.  levis         |  custodl-re, .^^//^?r^/ custod-,  N.  custos 
misere-rl,  pity      misero-,  N.  miser  I  vesti-re,  dress       vesti-,  N.  vestis 

92.  (368.)  Verbs  in  -are  are  by  far  the  most  numerous  class  of  de- 
nominatives; they  are  usually  transitive;  but  deponents  often  express 
condition,  sometimes  occupation:  as,  dominarl, /<;r^  //,  play  the  lord; 
aquari,  get  oneself  water.  Most  verbs  in  -ire  also  are  transitive;  those 
in  -ere  usually  denote  a  state:  as,  calere,  be  warm  ;  but  some  are  causa- 
tive :  as,  monere,  remind. 

16 


Composition  :    The  Noun  [93-99 

93*  (371-)  Many  verbs  in  -tare  (-sare),  or  -tari  (-sari),  ex- 
press frequent,  intense,  or  sometimes  attempted  action.  These 
are  called  Frequcntatives  or  Intensives ;  they  are  formed  from 
perfect  participle  stems  :  as, 

cant-are,  sing  (canto-) ;  cess-are,  loiter  (cesso-)  ;  amplex-ari,  embrace 
(amplexo-)  ;  habit-are,  live  (habito-);  pollicit-ari,  make  overtures  (polli- 
cito-)  ;  dormit-are,  be  sleepy  (dormito-). 

94.  (372.)  Some  frequcntatives  in  -tare  are  formed  from  the  present 
stem  of  a  verb  in  -ere;  the  formative  vowel  before  -tare  becomes  i:  as, 
agi-tare,  shake  (age-re)  ;  quaeri-tare,  keep  seeking  (quaere-re). 

95-  (373-)  A  few  frequentatives  add  -ta-  to  the  perfect  participle 
stem  ;  as,  acti-tare,  act  often  (acto-)  ;  facti-tare,  do  repeatedly  (facto-). 
From  a  frequentative  another  frequentative  is  sometimes  derived  :  as, 
diet-are,  dictate,  dicti-tare,  keep  asserting  (dicto-). 

96.  (375-)  A  few  verbs  in-urio,  -urire,  express  desire;  such  are  called 
Desideratives :  as,  ess-urlre  or  es-urire,  'wa7it  to  eat  (edere,  esse).  A  few 
in  -sso,  -ssere,  express  earnest  action;  such  are  called  Meditatives :  as, 
lace-sso,  lace-ssere,  provoke. 


COMPOSITION 

97.  (376.)  In  compounds,  the  fundamental  word  is  usually 
the  second,  which  has  its  meaning  qualified  by  the  first. 

98.  (378.)  A  Real  Compound  is  a  word  whose  stem  is  formed  from 
twostems,  or  an  inseparable  prefix  and  a  stem,  fused  into  one  stem;  an 
Apparent  Compound  is  formed  by  the  juxtaposition  of  an  inflected  word 
with  another  inflected  word,  a  preposition,  or  an  adverb. 

I.    COMPOSITION   OF   NOUNS 

(A.)     REAL   COMPOUNDS 

FORM   OF   COMPOUNDS 

99-  (379-)  If  the  first  part  is  a  noun,  its  stem  is  taken :  as,  Aheno- 

barbus,  Redbeard,  Barbarossa ;  usually  with  change  of  the  stem  vowel: 

as,  Graiu-g-ena,  Greek-born  (Graio-);  or  sometimes  with  disappearance 

of  a  vowel :   as,   man-ceps,   contractor  (manu-) ;    particularly   before   a 

B  17 


100-I06]  Words:  Formation 

vowel:  as,  maign-a.nimuSf ^rea^-soti/e^  (magno-).  Consonant  stems  are 
often  extended  by  i  before  a  consonant :  as,  mori-gerus,  complaisant 
(mor-). 

100.  (381.)  The  second  part,  which  often  has  a  change  in  the  vowel, 
is  sometimes  a  bare  root  used  as  a  stem  (61),  oftener  a  root  with  a  for- 
mative suffix;  or  a  noun  stem,  sometimes  with  its  stem  ending  modi- 
fied: as,  iu-dic-,  N.  iudex,ywr^r  (Vdic-,  declare)  ;  con-tag-ion-,  N.  con- 
tagio,  touching  together  (v/tag-,  touch,  63);  im-berb-i-,  N.  imberbis, 
beardless  (barba-). 

xMEANING   OF   COMPOUNDS 

loi.  (382.)  Determinatives  are  compounds  in  which  the 
second  part  keeps  its  original  meaning,  though  determined  or 
modified  by  the  first  part.  The  meaning  of  a  determinative 
may  often  be  best  expressed  by  two  words. 

102.  (383.)  The  first  part  of  a  determinative  may  be  an  adjective,  an 
adverb,  a  preposition,  or  an  inseparable  prefix ;  the  second  part  is  a  noun  ; 
as,  lati-fundium,  i.e.  lati  fundi,  broad  acres  ;  alti-sonans,  i.e.  alte  sonans, 
high-sounding;  con-discipulus,  i.e.  cum  altero  discipulus,  y>//<?z£/-/«//7/ 
in-dignus,  i.e.  non  dignus,  unworthy. 

103*  (384.)  The  first  part  of  a  determinative  may  represent  the  ob- 
lique case  of  a  noun,  generally  a  substantive;  the  second  part  is  a  noun 
or  verb  stem.  These  compounds  are  called  Objectives :  as,  accusative  of 
direct  object,  armi-ger,  i.e.  qui  arma  gerit,  armor-bearer ;  genitive, 
sol-stitium,  i.e.  soils  statio,  solstice  ;  ablative  instrumental,  tubi-cen,  i.e. 
qui  tuba  canit,  trumpeter. 

104.  (385.)   Possessives  are  adjective  compounds  in  which 

the  meaning  of  the  second  part  is  changed.    The  second  part 

of  a  possessive  is  always  formed  from  a  substantive,  qualified 

by  the  noun,  adverb,  or  inseparable  prefix  of  the  first  part, 

and  the  whole  expresses  an  attribute  which  something  has  :  as, 

longi-manus,  longarms,  long-armed ;  bi-linguis,  two-tongued ;  magn- 
Kmmyxs^  great  heart,  great-hearted :  im-berbis,  beardless. 

(H.)     APPARENT  COMPOUND.S 
105'  (386.)  Apparent  Compounds  are  formed  : 
106.  (387.)  By  two  nouns  combined,  one  with  an  unchanging  case 

iS 


Composition:    The  Verb  [i 07-1 13 

ending,  the  other  with  full  inflections:  as,  aquae-ductus,  aqueduct; 
senatus-consultum,  decree  of  the  senate  ;  pater-faniilias,y«M<?r  of  a  fam- 
ily ;  verl-similis,  like  the  truth  ;  in  these  words,  aquae,  senatus,  familias, 
and  verl  are  genitives,  and  remain  genitives,  while  the  other  part  of  the 
compound  is  declinable. 

107.  (389,)  By  nouns,  chiefly  substantives,  in  the  same  case  placed 
loosely  side  by  side  and  making  one  idea.  The  two  words  may  be  used: 
{a)  Copulatively:  as,  duo-decim,  two  and  ten,  twelve ;  or  (dJ.)  Appositive- 
ly:  one  word  explaining  the  other:  as,  luppiter,  Jove  the  Father,  for 
lovis  pater. 

108.  (390.)  From  an  original  combination  of  an  oblique  case  with  a 
preposition  :  as,  proconsul,  proconsul,  from  pro  consule,  for  a  consul ; 
egregius,  select,  from  e  grege,  out  of  the  herd. 

II.     COMPOSITION   OF   VERBS 
(A.)    REAL   COMPOUNDS 

109.  (391.)  Real  Compounds  are-  direct  compounds  of  a 
verb  with  a  preposition  :  as, 

per-agere,  put  through,  accomplish  ;  ab-igere,  drive  away  ;  ex-quirere, 
seek  out. 

(B.)     APPARENT   COMPOUNDS 

110.  (393.)  Apparent  Compounds  are  formed  by  the  juxta- 
position of: 

111.  (394.)  A  verb  with  a  verb:  facio  and  flo  are  added  to  present 
stems,  mostly  of  intransitive  verbs  in  -ere  ;  the  -e-  of  the  first  verb  is 
sometimes  long,  and  sometimes  short:  as,  cale-facere,  make  warm 
(calere);  made-facere,  make  wet  (madere).  In  these  apparent  com-* 
pounds,  the  accent  of  facio  remains  the  same  as  in  the  simple  verb:  as, 
calefacis. 

112.  (395.)  A  substantive  with  a  verb:  as,  anim-advertere,  j^^^ir/  heed 
to,  animum  advertere ;  venum-dare,  or  vendcre,  sell^  venum  dare. 

113.  (396.)  An  adverb  with  a  verb:  as,  satis-facere,  satis-dare,  ^/7/<? 
satisfactio7i ;  intro-ire,  ^f?  ijtside. 


19 


1 1 4- 1 1 8]  Words:   Inflection 

C.     Inflection 
114.  (397.)  Inflection   is  the   change  which  nouns, 
pronouns,  and  verbs  undergo  to  indicate  their  relation 
in  a  sentence. 

The  inflection  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  is  often  called  Declen- 
sion^ and  that  of  a  verb,  Conjugation. 


GENDER 

115.  (402.)  There  are  two  genders,  Masculine  and 
Femini7te.  Masculine  and  feminine  nouns  are  called 
Gender  nouns.  Nouns  without  render  are  called 
Neuter, 

116.  (403f.)  Gender  is,  properly  speaking,  the  distinction  of  sex. 
In  Latin,  a  great  many  tilings  witliout  life  have  gender  in  grammar, 
and  are  masculine  or  feminine.  Some  classes  of  substantives  may  be 
brought  under  general  heads  of  signification,  as  below,  like  the  names 
of  rivers  and  winds  (i  17),  which  are  masculine,  or  of  plants  (118),  which 
are  feminine.  When  the  gender  cannot  be  determined  thus,  it  must 
be  learned  from  the  special  rules  for  the  several  stems  and  their  nomi- 
natives. 

GENDER   OF  SOME   CLASSES  OF   SUBSTANTIVES* 

MASCULINES 

117.  (405.)  Names  of  male  beings,  winds,  and  most 
names  of  rivers  and  mountains,  are  masculine :  as, 

Caesar,  Gaius,  Sulla,  men's  names;  pater,  father;  ems,  master; 
scriba,  writer ;  Tiberis,  the  Tiber;  Aquilo,  a  Norther ;  Lucretilis,  Mt. 
Lucretilis. 

FEMININES 

118.  (407.)  Names  of  female  beings,  and  most  names 
of  plants,  flowers,  shrubs,  and  trees,  are  feminine:  as. 


The  Noitn  :    Case  [  1 1 9- 1 2  6 

Gaia,  Glycerium,  women's  names;  malus,  applc-trcc;  quercus,  ^rt/^/ 
ilex,  holm-oak;  abies,  yfr. 

COMMON    AND    EPICENE   NOUNS 

119.  (410.)  Some  nouns  have  one  ending,  but  are  applicable  to  either 
sex.  Such  are  said  to  be  of  Common  Gender:  as,  adulescens,  j/cz/r;/»-  maii 
ov  young  womait ;  dux,  leader  ;  infans,  baby,  child. 

120.  (411.)  Epigenes  have  one  ending  and  one  grammatical  gender, 
though  applicable  to  animals  of  either  sex.  Thus,  aquila,  eagle,  is 
feminine,  though  it  may  denote  a  he-eagle  as  well  as  a  she-eagle. 

neuters 

121.  (412.)  Indeclinable  nouns,  infinitives,  words  and  expres- 
sions quoted  or  explained,  and  letters  of  the  alphabet,  are 
neuter:  as, 

fas,  the  right;  vivere  ipsum,  7nere  living;  istuc  *' taceo,"  j^//;-  "/ 
ivont  mention  ";  o  Graecum,  Greek  O. 


NUMBER 

122.  (414.)  There  are  two  numbers,  the  Singular, 
used  of  one,  the  Plural,  of  more  than  one. 

123.  (415.)  ambo,  both,  and  duo,  two,  nominative  and  accusative  mas- 
culine and  neuter,  are  the  only  remnants  of  an  old  /^//rt;/ number,  denot- 
ing two. 

124.  (418.)  Some  substantives  have  different  meanings  in  the  two 
numbers:  as,  aedis,  teniple,  aedes,  house ;  auxilium,  aid,  auxilia,  auxil- 
iaries; Castrum,  Castle,  castra,  camp  ;  copia,  abwidance,  copiae,  troops ; 
finis,  end,  fines,  boundaries  ;  impedimentum,  hindrance,  impedimenta, 
baggage  ;  littera,  letter  {of  the  alphabet),  litterae,  epistle. 


CASE 

125.  (419.)  Nouns  have  five  cases,  the  Nominative, 
Genitive,  Dative,  Accusative,  and  Ablative. 

126.  (420.)  Town  names  and  a  few  appellatives  (5)  have  also  a  case 
denoting  the  place  where,  called  the  Locative.     Masculine  stems  in  -o- 

21 


127-130]  Words:  Inflection 


and  some  Greek  stems  with  other  endings  have  still  another  form  used 
in  addressing  a  person  or  thing,  called  the  Vocative. 

127.  (419.)  The  nominative  represents  a  noun  as  subject,  the  accusa- 
tive as  object;  the  genitive  denotes  the  relation  of  of,  the  dative  of  to 
ox  for,  and  the  ablative  oifrom,  with,  in,  or  by.  But  the  meanings  of  the 
cases  are  best  learned  from  reading.  All  cases  but  the  nominative  and 
vocative  are  called  Oblique  Cases. 

(A.)  INFLECTION  OF  THE  NOUN 

128.  (398.)  The  noun  or  pronoun  is  inflected  by 
attaching  case  endings  to  the  stem. 

The  endings,  which  for  brevity  are  called  case  endings,  indicate 
number  as  well  as  case,  and  serve  also  to  distinguish  gender  words  from 
neuters  in  the  nominative  and  accusative  singular  of  some  stems,  and 
of  all  plurals.     These  endings  are  nearly  the  same  for  stems  of  all  kinds. 

THE   STEM 

129.  (399.)  The  stem  contains  the  meaning  of  the  noun  (58). 
Noun  stems  are  arranged  in  the  following  order:  (i,)  stems 
in  -a-,  in  -o-,  in  a  consonant,  or  in  -i-;  these  are  substantive, 
including  proper  names,  or  adjective;  (2.)  stems  in  -u-  or  -e-; 
these  are  substantive  only,  and  include  no  proper  names. 

130.  (421.)  The  stem  of  a  noun  is  best  seen  in  the  genitive; 
in  the  genitive  plural  it  is  preserved  without  change,  except 
that  o  of  -o-  stems  is  lengthened.  In  dictionaries  the  stem  end- 
'nsf  is  indicated  by  the  genitive  singular:  thus,  -ae,  -i,  -is,  -us, 
-^i,  indicate  respectively  stems  in  -a-,  -o-,  a  consonant  or  -i-, 
-U-,  and  -e-,  as  follows: 

CJenitive  Singular  (iKNiTivE  Plural  Stems  in 

ae,  mensae,  table  -arum,  mensa-rum  -a-,  mensa-,  N.  mensa 

-1,  domini,  master  -drum,  domino-rum  -o-,  domino-,  N.  dominus 

-is,  regis,  king  -cons,  um,  reg-um  -consonant,  reg-,  N.  rex 

-is,  civis,  citizen  -ium,  civi-um  -i-,  civi-,  N.  civis 

-us,  portus,  port  -uum,  portu-um  -u-,  portu-,  N.  portus 

-ei,  rel,  thing  -erum,  re-rum  -e,  re-,  N.  res 

22 


The  Noun:  Stems  in  -a-  [131-1 37 

131.  (423.)  Neuters  have  the  nominative  and  accusative  alike ;  in  the 
singular  the  stem  is  used:  as,  nomen,  name.  In  the  plural  -a  is  always 
used :  as,  regna,  kmgdoms,  nomina,  cornua,  horns. 

132.  (428.)  The  dative  and  ablative  plural  are  always  alike :  as,  men- 
sis,  dominis,  navi-bus,  portu-bus  or  porti-bus,  re-bus. 


STEMS    IN   -a- 

THE   FIRST   DECLENSION 

Genitive  singular  -ae,  genitive  plural  -a-rum. 

133.  (432.)  Stems  in -a- include  substantives  and  ad- 
jectives; both  substantives  and  adjectives  are  feminine. 

134.  (433.)  Names  of  males  are  masculine  (117):  as,  scriba,  writer ; 
also  Hadria,  the  Adriatic. 

135.  (434.)  The  nominative  of  stems  in  -a-  ends  in   the  shortened 
stem  vowel  -a. 

136.  (435.)  Stems  in  -a-  are  declined  as  follows: 


Example 
Stem 

mensa,  table, 
mensa-,  F. 

Stem  and 

case 
endings 

Singular 
Nom. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 
Abl. 

mensa                    table,  a  (or  the^  table 
mensae                  a  table's^  of  a  table 
mensae                  to  or  for  a  table 
mensam                a  table 
mensa                    from,  ivvth,  or  by  a  table 

-a 

-ae 
-ae 
-am 
-a 

Plural 
Nom. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 
Abl. 

mensae                   tables  (or  the')  tables 
mensarum             tables  ,  of  tables 
mensis                  to  or  for  tables 
mensas                  tables 
mensis                    from,  with,  or  by  tables 

-ae 
-arum 

-IS 

-as 

-Is 

SINGULAR  CASES 


137.  (437.)  The  genitive  sometimes  ends  (i.)  in    -ai   in  poetry:  as, 
aulal,  of  the  hall ;  pictal,  embroidered ;  (2.)  in  -as:  as,  molas,  of  a  mill. 

23 


138-144]  Words:  Inflection 

This  genitive  is  rare,  but  was  always  kept  up  in  the  word  familias  with 
pater  or  mater,  sometimes  with  filius  or  filia:  pater  familias,  the  good- 
matt,  mater  familias,  the  housewife.  But  pater  familiae,  or  in  the  plural 
patres  familiarum,  is  equally  common. 

138.  (438.)  Town  names  and  a  few  appellatives  (5)  have  a  locative 
case  in  -ae:  as,  Romae,  in  Rome;  mllitiae,  in  war,  in  the  field,  in  the 
army. 

PLURAL  CASES 

139.  (439.)  Compounds  ending  with  -cola,  inhabiting,  and  -gena, 
born,  and  patronymics,  sometimes  have  the  genitive  plural  in  -um  in 
poetry :  as,  caelicolum,  of  occupants  of  heaven  ;  Graiugenum,  of  Greek- 
born  men  ;  Aeneaidumj  of  Aeneas' s  sons;  also  names  of  peoples;  as,  La- 
pithum,  of  the  Lapithae.  With  these  last  -um  occurs  even  in  prose  :  as, 
Crotoniatum,  of  the  Croiona  people. 

140.  (442.)  The  dative  and  ablative  plural  sometimes  end  in  -abus, 
particularly  in  de.'khw.s^ goddesses,  and  filiabus,  daughters,  to  distinguish 
them  from  dels,  gods,  and  filils,  so?ts.  ambae,  both,  and  duae,  two,  regu- 
larly have  ambabus  and  duabus. 

GREEK   NOUNS 

141.  (445.)  Greek  proper  names  sometimes  have  the  following  forms : 
Nominative  masculine  -as,  -es  :  as,  Prusias,  Atrides;  feminine -a:  as, 
Gela,  Phaedra;  -e :  as,  Circe.  Genitive  feminine -es:  as,  Circes.  Ac- 
cusative masculine  -an,  -den:  as,  Aenean,  Peliden  ;  feminine  -en:  as, 
Circen.  Ablative  feminine  -e:  as,  Tisiphone.  Vocative  -a  or  -a:  as, 
Atrida,  Atrida,  Thyesta;  -te :  as,  Boote;  -de:  as,  Aeacide. 


STEMS    IN    -O- 

THE   SECOND    DECLENSION 

Genitive  singular  -i,  genitive  plural  -6-rum 

142.  (446.)  Stems  in  -o-  include  substantives  and 
adjectives,  masculine  or  neuter. 

143.  (447.)  Most  names  of  plants  in -us  are  feminine  (i  18);  also  the 
following :  alvos  or  alvus,  belly,  colas,  distaff,  domus,  house,  humus, 
ground,  vannus,  fan. 

144.  (448.)  The  nominative  of  masculines  ends,  including  the  stem 
vowel,  in  -u-s;  some  end  in  -r ;  neuters  end  in  -u-m.  For  the  older 
Latin  -o-s,  -o-m,  see  148. 

24 


The  Noun:  Stems  in  -o-  [145-147 


145.  (449.)  Stems  in  -o-  with  the  nominative  in  -us  or  -um 
are  declined  as  follows: 


Examples 

dominus,  master. 

regnum,  kingdom. 

Stem  and  case 

Stems 

domino-,  M. 

regno-,  Ne. 

endings 

Singular 

M. 

Ne.      { 

Norn. 

dominus,  a  (or  the)  master 

regnum 

-us 

-um 

Gen. 

domini,  a  masters 

regni 

-i 

-i 

Dat. 

domino,  to  or  for  a  master 

regno 

-6 

-6 

Ace. 

dominum,  a  master 

regnum 

-um 

-um 

Abl. 

domino, /;vw,  zvith,  or  by  a 

regno 

-6 

-6 

Voe. 

domine,  master         [master 

-e 

Plural 

Norn. 

domini,  (t/ie)  masters 

regna 

-i 

-a 

Gen. 

dominorum,  0/  masters 

regnorum 

-orum 

-drum 

Dat. 

dominis,  to  or  for  masters 

regnis 

-is 

-is 

Ace. 

dominos,  masters  [masters 

regna 

-OS 

-a 

Abl. 

dominis /;w/z,  with,  or  by 

regnis 

-is 

-is 

146.  (450.)  deus,  ^^r/,  is  declined  as  follows:  N.  deus,  G.  dei,  D.  and 
Ab.  deo,  Ac.  deum.  Plural:  N.  dei,  dii,  commonly  di,  G.  deorum  or 
deum,  D.  and  Ab.  deis,  diis,  commonly  dis,  Ac.  deos. 

147.  (451.)  Stems  in  -o-  with  the  nominative  in  -r,  or  in 
-aius,  -eius,  or  -oius  are  declined  as  follows: 


Examples 

puer,     boy, 

ager,  field. 

Pompeius,  Pompey, 

Stems 

puero-,  M. 

agro-,  M. 

Pompeio-,  M. 

Singular 

Norn. 

puer,  a  (or  the)  boy 

ager 

Pompeius 

Gen. 

pueri,  a  boy's,  of  a  boy 

agri 

Pompei 

Dat. 

puero,  to  or  for  a  boy 

agro 

Pompeio 

Ace. 

puerum,  a  boy 

agrum 

Pompeium 

Abl. 

puero,  from,  with,  or  by  a  boy 

agro 

Pompeio 

Voc. 

Pompei 

Plural 

Nom. 

pueri,  {the)  boys 

agri 

Pompei 

Gen. 

puerorum,  boys\  of  boys 

agrorum 

Pompeiorum 

Dat. 

pueris,  to  or  for  boys 

agris 

Pompeis 

Ace. 

pueros,  boys 

agros 

Pompeios 

Abl. 

pueris,  from,  zvith,  or  by  boys 

agris 

Pompeis 

25 


148-154]  Words:  Inflection 


SINGULAR  CASES 

148.  (452.)  -US  and  -um  were  originally  -os  and  -om.  But  -us  was 
used  in  the  earliest  times,  -um  somewhat  later,  and  both  became  preva- 
lent between  218  and  55  B.C.  After  u  or  v,  however,  the  -os  and  -om 
were  retained  till  towards  50  a.d.  ;  also  after  qu  ;  but  -cus  and  -cum  often 
displaced  -quos  and  -quom:  as,  equos,  equom,  or  ecus,  ecum,  horse. 

149.  (454.)  Most  masculine  stems  in  -ro-  preceded  by  a  short  vowel 
or  a  mute  drop  -os  in  the  nominative,  and  have  no  vocative:  as,  stem 
puero-,  N.  puer,  boy.  Most  masculines  in  -ro-  have  a  vowel  before  r  only 
in  the  nominative  -er:  as,  agro-,  N.  ager.  But  in  compounds  ending  in 
-fer  and  -ger,  carrying,  kai'ing,  and  the  following,  the  vowel  before  -r  is 
a  part  of  the  stem,  and  is  found  in  all  the  cases  : 

adulter,  Liber,  paramour.  Liber  puer,  vir,  boy,  jnan 

gener,  socer,  son-ift-law,  father-in-law    liberl,  vesper,  children,  evening 

150.  (456.)  Substantives  ending  in  -ius  or  -ium  (but  nev^r 
adjectives)  have  commonly  a  single  -1  in  the  genitive  sin- 
gular :  as, 

Vergilius,  G.  Vergili  (50);  filius,  son,  G.  fili;  conubium,  marriage,  G. 
conubi. 

151.  (458.)  Proper  names  ending  in  -aius,  -eius,  or  oius  have  -ai,  -ei, 
or -61  in  the  genitive  and  vocative  singular  and  nominative  plural,  and 
-als,  -eis,  or  -61s  in  the  dative  and  ablative  plural:  as,  Gaius,  G,,  V.,  and 
N.  PI.  Gai,  D.  and  Ab.  PI.  Gais ;  Pompei,  Pompels ;  B6i,  B6Is. 

152.  (459.)  Latin  proper  names  in  -ius  have  the  vocative  in 

-1  only:  as, 

Vergilius,  V.  Vergili ;  Mercurius,  V.  Mercurl  (50).  So,  also,  filius,  fili, 
son;  meus,  mi,  my,  from  the  stem  mio-. 

153.  (460.)  Town  names  and  a  few  appellatives  have  a 
locative  case  in  -1:  as,  Ephesi,  at  Ephcsiis;  humi,  on  the 
ground;  belli,  in  ivar. 

PLURAL  CASES 

154.  (462.)  In  the  common  genitive  plural  -orum,  the  -o-  of  the 
stem  is  lengthened.  A  genitive  plural  in  -um  is  common  from  divus 
and    deus,  god;   from    denarius,  denar,  modius,  peck,  nummus,  money, 

26 


The  Noun :  Consonant  Steins       [  1 5  5- 1 60 

sestertius,  sesterce,  and  talentum,  talent,  with  numerals  ;  and  from  car- 
dinals and  distributives:  as,  divom,  deum;  mille  sestertium ;  ducentum ; 
binum.  Other  masculine  substantives  have  occasionally  this  genitive; 
as,  liberum,  of  children. 

GREEK   NOUNS 

155.  (466.)  Greek  stems  in  -o-  are  generally  declined  like  Latin  nouns, 
but  in  the  singular  sometimes  have  -os  in  the  nominative,  -on  in  the 
nominative  or  accusative  neuter:  as.  Nominative  Ilios ;  Ilion  or  Ilium. 
For  Androgeos,  Athos,  and  Panthus,  see  the  dictionary. 


CONSONANT    STEMS 

THE   THIRD    DECLENSION 

Genitive  singular  -is,  genitive  plural  -um 

156.  (467.)  Consonant  stems  are  mostly  substantive, 
and  include  both  gender  words  and  neuters. 

Comparatives  and  a  few  other  words  are  adjective.  For  the  gender 
of  substantives,  see  206. 

157.  (468.)  The  nominative  of  consonant  stems  ends  in  -s  (or  -x);  or 
in  -n  (-6),  -1,  -r,  or  -s  of  the  stem,  rarely  in  -c  or  -t. 

158.  (469.)  Most    consonant    stems   have  one  syllable  less 

in  the  nominative  than  in  the  genitive. 

Such  words  are  called  Imparzsytlabi'c  words  or  Iinparisyllables :  as, 
nominative  rex,  king,  one  syllable;  genitive  regis,  of  a  king,  two  syl- 
lables. 

159.  (470.)  Many  consonant  stems  have  a  double  form :  one  form 
used  in  the  nominative  singular  (neuters  have  this  form  in  the  accusa- 
tive also),  another  form  in  the  other  cases:  as, 

iudex,y/^r^r,  stem  of  nominative  iudec-,  of  other  cases  iudic-  ;  fiamen, 
special  priest,  ^aLvain-]  viv^b,  maid,  virgin- \  auceps,  yi^w/^r,  aucup- ;  ge- 
nus, race,  gener- ;  tristius,  sadder,  tristior-;  corpus,  body,  corpor-;  pater, 
father,  patr-.  In  such  instances  the  stem  of  the  oblique  cases  is  taken 
for  brevity  to  represent  both  forms  of  the  stem. 

I.    MUTE   STEMS 

160.  (471.)  Stems  in  a  guttural  mute,  -g-  or  -C-,  are  de- 
clined as  follows: 

27 


I6I-I63] 


Words:  Inflection 


Examples 

rex,  Jihii^, 

dux,  leader. 

iudex,y//;vr, 

Case 

Stems 

reg-,  M. 

■ 

due-,  M. 

iudic-,M.,F. 

endings 

Singular 

Nom. 

rex,  n  (or  the)  king 

dux 

iudex 

-s  (-X) 

Gen. 

regis,  a  kings,  of  a  king 

ducis 

iudicis 

-is 

Dat. 

regi,  to  or  for  a  king 

duel 

iudici 

-i 

Ace. 

regem,  a  king             {.king 

ducem 

iudicem 

-em 

AM. 

rege,  from,  with,  or  by  a 

duce 

iudice 

-e 

Plural 

A^oiit. 

reges,  {the)  kings 

duces 

iudices 

-es 

Gen. 

regum,  kings',  of  kings 

ducum 

iudicum 

-um 

Dat. 

regibus,  to  or  for  kings 

ducibus 

iudicibus 

-ibus 

Ace. 

reges,  kings               [kings 

duces 

iudices 

-es 

Abl. 

regibus,  from,  with,  or  by 

ducibus 

iudicibus 

-ibus 

161.  (472.)  Examples  of  stems  in  -g-,  with  nominative  -x,  genitive 
-gis,  are:  grex,  herd ;  lex,  law  ;  remex,  oarsman :  coniiinx,  sfouse. 

162.  (473.)  Examples  of  stems  in  -c-,  with  nominative  -x,  genitive 
-cis,  are:  fax,  torch;  ^kx.^  peace  (PI,  only  N.  and  Ac);  nex,  murder: 
apex,  point;  s\\^-x.y  flint ;  cervix,  7icck ;  radix,  root;  vox,  voice;  crux, 
cross. 

163.  (474.)  Stems  in  a  lingual  mute,  -d-  or  -t-,  arc  declined 
as  follows : 


Examples 

CUStos,  keeper. 

aetas,   age. 

virtus,  virtne. 

miles,  soldier. 

Stems 

custod-,  M. 

aetat-,  F. 

virtut-,  F. 

milit-,  M. 

Singular 

Norn. 

custos 

aetas 

virtus 

miles 

Gen. 

custodis 

aetatis 

virtutis 

militis 

Dat. 

custodi 

aetati 

virtuti 

militi 

Ace. 

custodem 

aetatem 

virtutem 

militem 

Abl 

custode 

aetate 

virtute 

milite            1 

Plural 

Noni. 

custodes 

aetates 

virtutes 

milites 

Gen. 

custodum 

aetatum 

virtutum 

militum 

Dat. 

custodibus 

aetatibus 

virtutibus 

militibus 

Aec. 

custodes 

aetates 

virtutes 

milites 

Abl. 

custddibus 

aetatibus 

virtutibus 

militibus 

28 


The  Noun:  Consoiiant  Stems       [164-168 

164.  (475  f.)  Examples  of  stems  in  -d-,  with  nominative  -s,  genitive 
-dis,  are:  obses,  hostage ;  ^^s,foot;  heres,  kei'r;  merces,  reward;  lapis, 
stone;  laus,  praise;  pecus,  kead  of  cattle;  palus,  swamp,  sedes,  F., 
seat,  has  an  -s-  stem,  namely  -es,  in  the  nominative,  and  sed-  in  the 
other  cases;  G.  PI.  sedum.  The  only  example  of  a  neuter  stem  in  -d-, 
with  nominative  -r,  genitive  -dis,  is  cor,  heart,  cordis,  no  G.  PI. 

165.  (477  f.)  Examples  of  stems  in  -t-,  with  nominative  -s,  genitive  -tis, 
are:  libertas,  freedom;  seges,  crop;  comes,  companion;  paries,  wall; 
sa.c&vdbSy  priest ;  'wxventns^  youth  (no  plural).  The  only  example  of  a 
neuter  stem  in  -t-,  with  nominative  -t,  genitive  -tis,  is  caput,  head, 
capitis,  and  its  compounds  occiput,  back  of  the  head,  and  sinciput, y^/(?. 

166.  (479.)  Stems  in  a  labial  mute,  -b-  or  -p-,  are  declined 
as  follows : 

miiniceps,  burgess,  stem  municip-,  M.,  F.  Singular :  N.  municeps,  G. 
municipis,  D.  municipi,  Ac.  municipem,  Ab.  miinicipe.  Plural:  N.  mu- 
nicipes,  G.  municipum,  D.  municipibus,  Ac.  municipes,  Ab.  mdnicipibus. 

167.  (480.)  Examples  of  stems  in  -b-  or  -p-,  with  nominative  -s,  geni- 
tive -bis  or  -pis,  are  the  adjectives  caelebs,  unmarried ;  particeps,  shar- 
ing;  princeps,  ^r^/. 


II.      STEMS    IN   A  CONTINUOUS   CONSONANT 

168.  (481.)  Stems  in  -1-  and  -n-  are  declined  as  follows: 


Examples 

consul,  consul. 

leo,  lion. 

imago,  likeness. 

nomen,  name. 

Stems 

consul-,  M. 

leon-,  M. 

imagin-,  F. 

nomin-,  Ne. 

Singular 

A^ovi. 

consul 

leo 

imago 

ndmen 

Gen. 

consulis 

leonis 

imaginis 

nominis 

Dat. 

consul! 

leoni 

imagini 

nomini 

Ace. 

consulem 

leonem 

imaginem 

ndmen 

Abl. 

consule 

leone 

imagine 

nomine 

Plural 

Nom. 

consules 

leones 

imagines 

nomina 

Gen. 

consulum 

leonum 

imaginum 

nominum 

Dat. 

consulibus 

leonibus 

imaginibus 

nominibus 

\         Ace. 

consules 

leones 

imagines 

nomina 

Abl. 

consulibus 

leonibus 

imaginibus 

nominibus 

29 


169-173] 


Words :  Inflection 


169.  (482.)  Examples  of  stems  in  -1-,  with  nominative  -1,  genitive  -lis, 
are  :  sal,  salt  (no  G.  PI.) ;  mel,  Ne.,  honey  (plural  only  mella);  sol,  sun  (no 
G.  PI.) ;  exsul,  exile. 

170.  (483  ff.)  Examples  of  stems  in  -n-,  with  nominative  -en,  genitive 
-inis,  are:  flamen,  priest;  tibiceny  pi/>er ;  tubicen,  trumpeter;  many 
neuters  in  -men  (63):  as,  certamen,  contest.  With  nominative  -6,  geni- 
tive -onis:  praedo,  robber;  opinio,  notion;  cogitatio,  thought.  With 
nominative  -o,  genitive  -inis:  ord5,  ra7ik ;  homo,  hwnan  beifig ;  nemo, 
nobody  (for  G.  and  Ab.,  niillius  and  nullo  are  generally  used);  virgo, 
maiden;  imago,  likeness;  solitudo,  lo7teliness.  ZKvCis^dog,  stem  can-,  and 
iuvenis,  j^w;/^  perso?t,  stem  iuven-,  have  the  nominative  formed  like 
that  of  -i-  stems. 

171.  (487.)  Stems  in  -r-  and  -s-  are  declined  as  follows  : 


Examples 

pater,  fat/ier 

dolor,  paitt. 

flos,  JloTver 

genus,   race, 

Stems 

pair-,  M. 

dolor-,  M. 

fior-,  M. 

gener-,  Ne. 

Singular 

Xovi. 

pater 

dolor 

flos 

genus 

Gen. 

patris 

doloris 

floris 

generis 

Dat. 

patri 

dolorl 

flori 

generi 

Ace. 

patrem 

dolorem 

florem 

genus 

Abl. 

patre 

dolore 

flore 

genere 

Plural 

Norn. 

patres 

dolores 

flores 

genera 

Gen. 

pat  rum 

dolorum 

florum 

generura 

Dat. 

patribus 

doloribus 

fldribus 

generibus 

Ace. 

patres 

dolores 

flores 

genera 

Abl. 

patribus 

doloribus 

fldribus 

generibus 

172.  (489.)  Examples  of  stems  in  -r-,  with  nominative  -r,  genitive 
-ris,  are:  agger,  mound;  career,  y^//;  mulier,  woman;  mater,  mother; 
arbor,  tree;  soror,  sister;  aug^r,  augur;  fulgur,  lightning. 

173.  (491.)  Examples  of  stems  in  -s-,  or -r-  for  -s-,  with  nominative 
-s,  genitive  -ris,  are:  aes,  Ne.,  copper;  cinis,  ashes;  pulvis,  dust ;  mos, 
custom;  6s,  Ne.,  mouth,  face  {r\o  G.  PI.);  honos  or  honor,  honour;  mu- 
nus,  Ne.,  gift ;  opus,  Ne.,  work  ;  corpus,  Ne.,  body  ;  litus,  Nc..  shore  ; 
tellus,  earth. 

30 


The  Noun:  Consonant  Stems       [174-180 

174.  (492  f.)  OS,  Ne.,  iwjte,  ossis,  has  no  G.  PI.  in  good  writers: 
ossium  late.  The  two  neuters  virus, ^^/Z,  poi'soft,  and  volgus  or  vulgus, 
the  crowd,  have  -o-  stems,  except  in  the  nominative  and  accusative,  and 
no  plural:  thus,  N.and  Ac  volgus,  G.volgi,  D.and  Ab.  volgo.  A  mascu- 
line accusative  volgum  is  sometimes  found.  The  Greek  neuter  pelagus, 
the  deep,  has  also  G.  pelagi,  D.  and  Ab.  pelago,  PI.  N.  and  Ac.  pelage. 

III.      STEMS   IN   -U-  OR  -V- 

175.  (494.)  Four  substantives  with  stems  in  -u-  or  -v-,  grus,  F.,  crane, 
gruis;  sus,  xM.,  F.,  sow,  swine,  suis;  bos,  M.,  F.,  ox,  cow,  bovis ;  and  nix 
(176),  F.,  snow,  nivis,  follow  the  consonant  declension  ;  also  the  genitive 
lovis,  and  the  other  oblique  cases  of  luppiter.  But  sus  has  in  the 
plural  dative  and  ablative  suibus,  subus,  or  subus ;  bos  has  in  the  plural 
genitive  bourn  or  bovum,  and  in  the  dative  and  ablative  bobus,  or 
oftener  bubus ;  nix  has  no  genitive  plural  in  good  writers:  nivium  late, 
once  nivum. 

UNUSUAL    FORMATIONS 

176.  (500.)  The  following  have  the  nominative  singular  formed  from 
a  different  stem  from  that  of  the  other  cases; 

\\.^r,  journey,  itineris,  stems  iter-,  itiner-;  luppiter  (107),  lovis;  nix, 
snow,  nivis,  stems  nigu-,  niv-  (175);  senex,  old  man,  man  of  forty  or 
more,  senis,  stems  senec-,  sen-.     For  sedes,  seat,  see  164. 

177.  (503.)  Adjectives  in  the  comparative  degree  have  sometimes  an 
ablative  in  -1 :  as,  meliorl,  better,  for  meliore.  Adjectives  "  of  one  end- 
ing" with  consonant  stems  (251)  have  always  -e,  except  vetus,  ^/<r/,  which 
has  sometimes  veteri  (253). 

178;  (504.)  Town  names  and  a  few  appellatives  have  a  locative  case 
in  -i :  as,  Karthagini,  at  Carthage  ;  rurl,  a-field,  in  the  country. 

GREEK   NOUNS 

179.  (508.)  Greek  appellatives  (5)  of  the  consonant  declension  occa- 
sionally retain  Greek  case  endings:  as,  lampas,  torch,  G.  lampados,  Ac. 
lampada.  Plural :  N.  lampades,  Ac.  lampadas.  aer,  air,  has  usually 
the  accusative  aera,  and  aether,  upper  air,  always  has  aethera. 

180.  (509.)  Greek  proper  names  of  the  consonant  declension  are 
usually  declined  like  Latin  ones  in  prose.  From  Vergil  and  Propertius 
on,  Greek  case  endings  grow  more  and  more  frequent,  especially  in 
poetry;  they  are  best  learned  for  every  name  from  the  dictionary. 

31 


181-185] 


Words:  Inflection 


STEMS    IN    -i-    AND    MIXED    STEMS 

THE    THIRD    DECLENSION 

Genitive  singular  -is,  genitive  plural  -i-um. 

181.  (513.)  Stems  in  -i-  include  both  substantives 
and  adjectives,  gender  words  and  neuters. 

For  the  gender  of  substantives,  see  206, 

182.  (514.)  The  nominative  of  gender  stems  in  -i-  ends  usually  in  -s 
(or  -x),  sometimes  in  -1  or  -r;  that  of  neuter  substantives  has  no  suffix, 
and  ends  usually  in  -e,  sometimes  in  -1  or  -r. 

183.  (515.)  Most  stems  in  -i-  have  as  many  syllables  in  the 
nominative  as  in  the  genitive. 

Such  words  are  called  Parisyllabic  words,  or  P.arisyllables :  as,  nom- 
inative civis,  citizen,  two  syllables;  genitive  civis,  of  a  citizen,  also  two 
syllables. 

184.  (516.)  Stems  in  -i-  are  declined  in  the  main  like  consonant 
stems,  but  have  -im  in  the  accusative  of  some  substantives,  and  -i  in 
the  ablative  of  adjectives,  of  some  gender  substantives,  and  of  neuters; 
in  the  plural  they  have  -ium  in  the  genitive, -is  often  in  the  accusative 
of  gender  words,  and  -ia  in  the  nominative  and  accusative  neuter. 

I.      PARISYLLABLES 

185.  (517.)  Parisyllabic  gender  stems  in  -i-  with  the  nom- 
inative in  -is  are  declined  as  follows  : 


Examples 

\.ViSS\^,cough, 

turris,  tower. 

amnis,  Hver, 

hostis,/'//^//0', 

«  c  ^  — 

Stems 

tussi-.  F. 

turri-,  F. 

amni-,  M. 

hosti-,M..F. 

4) 

Singular 

Norn. 

tussis 

turris 

amnis 

hostis 

-is    ■ 

Gen. 

tussis 

turris 

amnis 

hostis 

-IS 

Dat. 

tussI 

turri 

amni 

hosti 

-i 

Ace. 

tussim 

turrim,  -em 

amnem 

hostem 

-im,-em 

Abl. 

tussi 

turri,  -e 

amne,  -i 

hoste 

-I,-e 

Plural 

Noni. 

tusses 

turres 

amnes 

hostes 

-€s 

Gen. 

turrium 

amnium 

hostium 

-lum 

Dat. 

turribus 

amnibus 

hostibus 

-ibus 

Ace. 

tussis,  -es 

turris,  -es 

amnis,  -es 

hostis,  -es 

-Is,  -es 

Abl. 

turribus 

amnibus 

hostibus 

-ibus 

The  Noun :  Stems  in  -i- 


[186-19: 


186.  (518.)  Like  the  singular  of  tussis  are  declined  the  defectives 
sitis,  thirst,  Ac.  sitim,  Ab.  siti,  no  plural ;  and  vis,  power,  Ac.  vim,  Ab. 
vi.     Plural :  N.  vires,  G.  virium,  D.  and  Ab.  viribus,  Ac.  viris  or  vires. 

187.  (519.)  The  following  feminines  are  declined  like  turris,  with-im 
or  -em  in  the  accusative,  and  -i  or  -e  in  the  ablative: 

clavis,  key  navis,  vessel  sementis,  planting 

fehriSy /ez'er  puppis,  stern  strigilis,  skiti-scraper 

188.  (521.)  The  following  are  declined  like  amnis,  with -em  in  the 
accusative,  and  -i  or  -e  in  the  ablative: 

avis,  bird  civis,  citizen  fustis,  club 

biiis,  bile  classis,y?^<?/  ignis,  fire 

189.  (522.)  Most  paris3dlab!c  stems  in  -i-,  with  the  nominative  in  -is, 
are  declined  like  hostis:  2L^,hw.s\s,  glaive ;  ^\sz\s,  fish ;  aedis,  temple, 
PI.  house  (124) ;  vitis,  vi?te;  and  a  great  many  others. 

190.  (523.)  Parisyllables  in  -i-  with  the  nominative  in  -es 
have  their  other  cases  like  those  of  hostis:  such  are: 

caedes,  bloodshed;  clades,  disaster;  moles,  pile;  niibes,  cloud;  proles, 
offspring,  no  PI.;  ^nhes,  young  population,  no  PL;  rupes,  crag;  suboles, 
offspring;  and  some  others. 

191.  (526.)  Parisyllabic  neuters  in  -i-,  with  the  nominative 
in  -e  are  declined  as  follows : 


Examples 
Stems 

sedile,  seat, 
sedili-,  Ne. 

mare,     sea, 
mari-,  Ne. 

Stem  and 
case  endings 

Norn. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 

A  hi. 

Singular 

Plural 

Singular 

Plural 

s. 

PI. 

sedile 

sedilis 

sedili 

sedile 

sedili 

sedilia 

sedilium 

sedilibus 

sedilia 

sedilibus 

mare 

maris 

mari 

mare 

mari 

maria 
maria 

-e 
-is 

-i 

-e 

- 

-ia 

-ium 

-ibus 

-ia 

-ibus 

II.      IMPARISYLLABLES 

192.  (529.)  Some  stems  in   a  mute  followed  by  -i-,  and  a 
few  in  -li-  and  -ri-  drop  the  -i-  in  the  nominative,  and  thus 
become  imparisyllables.     Gender  stems  of  this  class  are  like 
c  33 


I93-I9S] 


Words:  Inflection 


consonant  stems  in  the  singular  (except  the  ablative  of  ad- 
jectives, which  has  usually  -1),  and  are  called  Mixed  Stems. 

193.  (530.)  Imparisyllabic  stems  in  -i-  are  declined  as  fol- 
lows: 


Examples 

arx,  citadel 

pars,  part. 

urbs,  city. 

animal,  animal. 

Stems 

arci-,  F. 

parti-,  F. 

urbi-,  F. 

animali-,  Ne. 

Singular 

Nom. 

arx 

pars 

urbs 

animal 

Gen, 

arcis 

partis 

urbis 

animalis 

Dat. 

arcl 

parti 

urbi 

animali 

Ace. 

arcem 

partem 

urbem 

animal 

Abl. 

arce 

parte 

urbe 

animali 

Plural 

Nom. 

arces 

partes 

urbes 

animalia 

Gen. 

arcium 

partium 

urbium 

animalium 

Dat. 

arcibus 

partibus 

urbibus 

animalibus 

Ace. 

arcis,  -es 

partis,  -es 

urbis,  -es 

animalia           { 

Abl. 

arcibus 

partibus 

urbibus 

animalibus       i 

194.  (531.)  Examples  of  stems  in  -ci-,  with  nominative -x,  genitive 
-cis,  are:  supplex,  suppliant;  falx,  sickle;  lux,  light  (no  G.  PI.);  and 
many  adjectives:  as,  audax,  daring;  felix,  happy ;  ferox,  wild. 

195.  (533.)  Examples  of  stems  in -ti-,  with  nominative -s  (-x),  geni- 
tive -lis,  are:  d^nSy  tooth;  Ions,  fotmtain;  mons,  mountain,  pons,  bridge; 
gens,  clan;  ars,  art ;  mors,  death;  nox,  itight. 

^96'  (536.)  Examples  of  stems  in  -li-,  with  nominative  -1,  genitive 
-lis,  are:  puteal,  well- curb ;  vectigal,  indirect  tax ;  tribunal,  tribunal; 
vigil,  wide-awake,  adjective,  Ab.  -i,  as  substantive  -e,  G.  V\.  vigilum,  no 
Ne.  PI.  N.  or  Ac. 

197-  (537)  Examples  of  stems  in  -ri-,  with  nominative  -r,  genitive 
-ris,  are:  calcar,  Ne.,  spur;  exemplar,  Ne..  pattern;  and  adjectives,  par, 
equal;  impar,  unequal;  Vi^tx,  fruitful ;  memor,  remembering. 

SINGULAR   CASES 

198.  (547.)  The  accusative  singular  of  gender  substantives  usually 
has -em,  like  consonant  stems;  but  a  few  substantives  with  the  nomi- 
native in  -is  have  -im  only,  and  some  have  either  -im  or  -em. 

34 


The  Noun:  Stems  in  -i  [199-206 

199.  (548.)  Accusatives  in  -im 

Are  sitim,  tussim,  vim,        thirst,  cough,  strength 
And  burim,  cucumim.  pioughtail,  cucumber 

200.  (552.)  In  the  ablative,  gender  substantives  have  usuall}^  -e,  and 
neuters  and  adjectives  have  -1:  as,  \iost^^  enemy ;  marl,  sea;  a.cn^  sharp; 
brevi,  short ;  audaci,  daring. 

20I'  (553)  Of  gender  substantives  with  the  nominative  in  -is,  a  few 
have  only  -i  in  the  ablative,  and  many  have  either  -i  or  -e. 

202.  (554.)  These  ablatives  have  only-i: 

securi,  siti,  tussi,  vi ;  axe,  thirst,  cough,  strength 

canall,  cucuml.  conduit,  cucwnber 

Some  names  of  rivers  and  cities  have  only  -i :  as,  Tiberi,  Hispali. 
The  locative  also  ends  in  -i:  as,  Neapoli,  at  Neapolis. 

203.  (560.)  Present  participles,  when  used  as  adjectives,  have  -1  in 
the  ablative,  otherwise  -e :  as, 

a  sapienti  viro,  by  a  wise  man;  adulescente,  youth,  substantive;  Rd- 
mulo  regnante,  in  the  reign  of  Romulus,  ablative  absolute. 

PLURAL  CASES 

204.  (562.)  In  the  plural,  gender  nominatives  have  -es,  rarely  -Is  or 
-eis,  and  gender  accusatives  have  -is  or  -es  indifferently,  sometimes  -eis; 
after  about  50  A.D.,  -es  was  the  prevalent  ending  for  both  cases.  Neu- 
ters add  -a  to  the  stem,  making  -ia. 

GREEK   NOUNS 

205.  (565.)  Greek  stems  in  -i-  are  usually  declined  like  Latin  ones, 
with  the  accusative  in  -im,  and  ablative  in  -I.  But  the  accusative  some- 
times has  -n:  as,  Charybdin:  similarly  Capyn;  and  a  vocative  occurs: 
as,  Charybdi. 


GENDER  OF  CONSONANT  STEMS  AND  -i-  STEMS 

206.  (570.)  The  gender  of  many  of  these  substantives  is  determined 
by  their  meaning  (i  17-120);  that  of  participles  used  as  substantives  fol- 
lows the  gender  of  the  substantive  understood  ;  Greek  substantives  fol- 
low the  Greek  gender.  The  gender  of  other  words  may  be  conveniently 
arranged  for  the  memory  according  to  the  nominative  endings  as  fol- 
lows. 

35 


207-212]  Words:  Inflection 


MASCULINE 

207.  (571.)  Imparisyllables  in  -es 

And  -es  with  Masculines  we  place; 
And  Masculines  we  further  know 
By  -er  and  -or,  by  -os  and  -6. 

Thus:  caespes,  sod;  p^s,foot;  agger,  inoimd;  sermo,  speech;  pallor, 
paleness  ;  ^bs,Jlower. 

208.  (572.)  Exceptions:  Imparisyllables  in  -es  and  -es : 

Neuter  aes;  but  requies 
And  quies,  also  compedes 
And  merces,  also  merges,  teges 
Are  Feminine  as  well  as  seges. 

209.  (573.)  Exceptions  in  -er: 

Thirteen  Neuters  end  in  -er: 
acer,  verbere,  cadaver, 
iter,  piper,  ver,  papaver, 

cicer,  tuber, 

slier,  uber, 

siser,  suber. 

210.  (574.)  Exceptions  in -6: 

The  words  in  -6  with  stems  in  -In-, 
And  card,  ^^j//,  are  Feminine; 
And  words  of  Action  in  -id. 
But  cardo,  ordo,  turbo,  no! 

211.  (575.)  Exceptions  in  -or: 

Neuters  four  there  are  in  -or: 
ador,  aequor,  marmor,  cor. 
Feminine  is  only  this, 
arbor  (arbos),  arboris. 

212.  (576.)  Exceptions  in  -6s: 

Three  feminines  there  are  in  -os, 
cos,  arbos,  (arboris),  and  dos. 
In  -OS  is  Neuter  one  alone, 
OS  (oris),  ;//^/^///,— short  -os  means  bone, 
36 


The  Noun:  Consonant  and  -i-  Stems  [213-218 


FEMININE 

213.  (577.)  The  Feminines  have  endings  six: 

A  consonant  with  -s  (or  -x) ; 

-as,  -aus,  and  -is;  and  with  these  place 

All  Parisyllables  in  -es. 

Thus:  nubes,  cloud;  aetas,  age;  Islus, praz'se ;  navis,  s/iip/  urbs,  cz'/j'; 
pax,  peace. 

214.  (578.)  Exceptions  in  -as  : 

The  only  Masculine  is  as; 
The  only  Neuter  word  is  vas; 
Unless  we  nefas  add  and  fas. 

215'  (579)  Exceptions  in  -is  : 

Masculine  are  all  in  -nis  ; 
Nine  above  a  score  in  -is : 
axis,  callis,  caulis,  anguis, 
fascis,  fustis,  lapis,  sanguis, 
piscis,  postis,  pulvis,  ensis, 
torquis,  torris,  unguis,  mensis, 
vectis,  vermis,  v5mis,  collis, 
glls,  canalis,  also  follis, 
casses,  sentes,  vepres,  orbis, 
cucumis,  and  sometimes  corbis. 

216.  (580.)  Exceptions  in  -s  preceded  by  a  consonant: 

Masculine  is  fons, 
A  fountain, 
dens  and  pons  and  mons, 
■  A  mowitam. 

217.  (581.)  Exceptions  in  -ex: 

Masculine  are  all  in  -ex. 

But  lex,  supellex,  precem,  nex. 

NEUTER 

218.  (582.)  The  Neuters  end  in  -c  and  -e,  . 

In  -ur,  -us,  -us,  -ar,  -1,  -n,  -t. 

Thus:  lac,  7nzlk ;  mare,  sea;  animal,  a7itinal ;  carmen,  so7ig;  caput, 
head;  calcar,  spur;  fulgur,  light7iing ;  corpus,  body;  mSy  right. 

37 


219-225] 


Words:  Inflect io7i 


219-  (5^3)  Exceptions:  Masculine: 

Among  the  Masculines  enroll 
furfur  and  pecten,  sal  and  sol. 

220.  (584.)  Feminines  in  -us  and  -us: 

iuventus,  virtus,  servitus, 
senectus,  tellus,  incus,  salus, 
With  peciis  (peciidis),  and  palus. 


STEMS    IN    -u- 

THE   FOURTH   DECLENSION 

Genitive  singular  -us,  genitive  plural  -u-um 

221.  (585.)  Stems  in  -u-  are  substantive  only,  and 
mostly  masculine. 

222.  (586.)  There  are  only  three  neuters  in  common  use,  comu,  horn, 
genu,  knee,  and  veru,  a  spit.  But  some  cases  of  other  neuters  are  used: 
as,  ablative  pecu,  fiock. 

223.  (587.)  The  nominative  of  stems  in  -u-  ends,  including  the  stem 
vowel,  in -u-s  in  gender  words,  and  in  lengthened-uof  the  stem  in  neuters. 

224.  (588.)  Most  substantives  in  -u-  are  masculines  in  -tu-  or  -su-, 
often  defective  in  case.  The  following  words  are  feminine:  acus, //>/, 
needle,  domus,  house,  manus,  ha?td,  porticus,  colonnade,  tribus,  tribe ;  and 
the  plurals  idus,  ides,  and  quinquatrus, /<?rfj/  of  Minerva;  rarely  penus, 
store,  and  specus,  cave. 

225.  (589.)  Stenns  in  -u-  are  declined  as  follows: 


Examples 

fluctus,  7vave, 

comu,  horn. 

Stem  and  case 

Stems 

fluctu-,  M. 

comu-,  Ne. 

endings 

Singular 

M. 

Ne. 

Nom. 

fluctus,  a  (or  the)  wave 

comu 

-us 

-u 

Gen. 

fluctus,  a  wavers,  of  a  loave 

coraus 

-us 

-us 

Dat. 

fluctui,  -u,  to  ox  for  a  wave 

cornu 

-ul,  -u 

-ii 

Ace. 

fluctum,  a  wave 

comu 

-um 

-u 

Abl. 

fluctu,//-^/;/,  with,  or  by  a  wave 

cornu 

-u 

-u 

Plural 

Nom. 

fluctus,  {the)  waves 

comua 

-us 

-ua 

Gen. 

fluctuum,  waves',  of  ivaves     ' 

cornuum 

-uum 

-uum 

Dat. 

fluctibus,  to  or  for  waves 

cornibus 

-ibus 

-ibus 

Ace. 

fluctus,  waves                   [waves 

cornua 

-us 

-ua 

AM. 

fluctibus, /r^w,  with,  or  by 

cornibus 

-ibus 

-ibus 

38 


The  Noun:  Stems  t?i  -e-  [226-234 


SINGULAR  CASES 

226.  (590.)  In  the  genitive,  the  uncontracted  form  -uis  sometimes  oc- 
curs. A  genitive  in  -ti  is  rather  common :  as,  senatf,  senate.  In  the 
dative,  -ui  is  regularly  contracted  to  -ii  in  neuters  and  often  in  gender 
words. 

PLURAL  CASES 

227.  (591.)  In  the  genitive  plural,  -urn  for  -u-um  is  rare :  as,  currum, 
chariots. 

22S.  (592.)  In  the  dative  and  ablative  plural,  the  following  retain 
-u-bus:  acus,  pin,  needle,  arcus,  bow,  partus,  birth,  tribus,  tribe.  The  fol- 
lowing have  -u-bus  or  -i-bus:  artiis,  ^^XuxaX,  joints,  lacus,  lake,  portus, 
havefi,  specus,  cave,  genu,  knee,  veru,  a  spit.  All  other  words  have 
-i-bus  only. 

229.  (594.)  domus,  house,  F.,  has  stems  of  two  forms,  domu-  and 
domo-;  it  is  declined  as  follows:  N.  domus,  G.  domiis,  Locative  domi,  D. 
domul  or  domo,  Ac.  domum,  Ab.  domo  or  domu.  Plural:  N.  domus, 
G.  domuum,  later  domorum,  D.  and  Ab.  domibus,  Ac.  domds,  less  com- 
monly domus. 


STEMS   IN    -e- 

THE    FIFTH   DECLENSION 

Genitive  singular  -ei,  genitive  plural  -e-rum 

230.  (596.)  Stems  in  -e-  are  substantive  only,  and 
feminine. 

231.  (597.)  dies,  day,  is  always  masculine  in  the  plural,  and  commonly 
in  the  singular;  but  the  feminine  is  common  when  dies  denotes  length 
of  time  or  a  set  day.     meridies,  midday,  is  masculine  and  singular  only. 

232.  (598.)  The  nominative  of  stems  in  -e-  ends,  including  the  stem 
vowel,  in  -e-s. 

233.  (599.)  Stems  in  -e-  are  of  two  classes: 

234.  (600.)  Stems  of  the  first  class  have  one  or  two  syl- 
lables ;  there  are  four  of  them :  res,  thing,  spes,  hope^  dies, 
day,  and  fides,  faith. 

39 


235-238] 


Words:  Inflection 


Of  this  class,  res  and  dies  have  a  plural  throughout ;  spes  has  only 
the  nominative  and  accusative  plural,  and  fides  has  no  plural. 

235.  (601.)  Stems  in  -e-  of  the  first   class  are  declined  as 
follows : 


Examples 

res,  thing. 

dies,  day. 

Stem  and  case 

Stems 

re-,  F. 

die-,  M. 

endings 

Singular 

Nam. 

res,  a  (or  the)  thing 

dies 

-es 

Gen. 

rii,  rei,  a  things,  of  a  thing 

diel,  diei 

-ei,  -el,  -ei 

Dat. 

rei,  rei,  to  or  for  a  thing 

diei,  diei 

-ei,  -ei,  -ei 

Ace. 

rem,  a  thing 

diem 

-em 

Abl. 

re,  from,  with,  or  by  a  thing 

die 

-e 

Plural 

Norn. 

res,  {the)  things 

dies 

-es 

Gen. 

rerum,  things' ,  of  things 

dierum 

-erum 

Dat. 

rebus,  to  or  for  things 

diebus 

-ebus 

Ace. 

res,  things 

dies 

-es 

Abl. 

rebus,  ym//,  with,  ox  by  things 

diebus 

-ebus 

236.  (602.)  dies  has  rarely  a  genitive  dii.  A  genitive  or  dative  in  -e 
is  sometimes  found :  as,  re,  die,  fide. 

237.  (604.)  Stems  of  the  second  class  are  formed  by  the 

sufifix  -ie-  or  -tie-,  and  have  three  or  more  syllables. 

This  class,  which  is  a  modification  of  stems  in  -a-,  has  usually  no 
genitive,  dative,  or  plural.  Many  stems,  especially  those  in  -tie-,  have 
also  a  collateral  form  in  -a-,  and  the  genitive  and  dative,  when  used  at 
all,  are  commonly  from  a  stem  in  -a-. 

238.  (605.)  Stems  in  -e-  of  the  second  class  are  declined  as 

follows: 

liixuries,  extravagance,  stem  liixurie-,  F. 
Norn,  luxuries,  Ace.  luxuriem,  Abl.  luxurie 


40 


The  Noun :  Adjectives 


[239-243 


THE  ADJECTIVE 

239.  (608.)  Adjectives  are  declined  like  substantives,  and  it  has  been 
shown  already  how  their  cases  are  formed.  But  they  differ  from  sub- 
stantives in  having  different  forms  in  some  of  their  cases  to  denote  dif- 
ferent genders  ;  it  is  convenient,  therefore,  to  put  their  complete  declen- 
sion together. 

240.  (609.)  Adjective  stems  end  in  -o-  and  -a-,  in  a 
consonant,  or  in  -i-. 

241.  (611.)  Adjectives  are  often  conveniently  said  to  be 
'' of  three  endings,''  ''  of  two  endings ,'  or  ''  of  one  ending^ 

By  the  "ending"  is  meant  the  ending  of  the  nominative  singular: 
thus,  bonus,  bona,  howMTsx^good,  and  acer,  acris,  acre,  sharp,  are  "  of  three 
endings";  brevis,  breve,  short,  is  "of  two  endings"  (119);  and  audax, 
bold,  is  "  of  one  ending  "  (1 19). 


STEMS  IN  -o-  AND  -a- 
242.  (613.)  Most  adjectives  with  stems  in  -o-  and  -a-  are 
declined  as  follows: 


Example 

M.  bonus,  F.  bona,  Ne.  bonum,  good. 

Stems 

bono-,  bona- 

Singular 

Plural 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

N'om, 

bonus 

bona 

bonum 

boni 

bonae 

bona 

Gen. 

boni 

bonae 

boni 

bonorum 

bonarum 

bonorum 

Dat. 

bono 

bonae 

bono 

bonis 

bonis 

bonis 

Ace. 

bonura 

bonam 

bonum 

bonds 

bonas 

bona 

Abl. 

bono 

bona 

bono 

bonis 

bonis 

bonis 

Voe. 

bone 

243.  (616.)  Some  stems  in  -ro-  preceded  by  a  short  vowel 
end  in  -r  in  the  nominative  singular  masculine  and  have  no 
vocative  (149) ;  they  are  declined  as  follows  : 

41 


244-245] 


Words:  Inflection 


Example 

M.  liber,  F.  libera,  Ne.  liberum,  free. 

Stems 

libero-,  libera- 

Singular 

Plural 

Masc. 

Fem.          Neut. 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Norn. 

liber 

libera     liberum 

liberi 

liberae 

libera 

Gen. 

liberi 

liberae    liberi 

liberorum 

liberarum 

liberorum 

Dat. 

libero 

liberae   libero 

liberis 

liberis 

liberis 

Ace. 

liberum 

liberam  liberum 

liberos 

liberas 

libera 

Abl. 

libero 

libera     libero 

liberis 

liberis 

liberis 

Such  are  :  compounds,  chiefly  poetical,  ending  in  -fer  and  -ger,  bear- 
ing,  carrying,  having:  as,  caelifer,  heaven-upholding ;  corniger,  horned ; 
also  the  following: 

(alter,  245),  asper,  other,  rough  satur,  semi{eT,/u//.  half -beast 

lacer,  liber,  torn, free  tener,  Trever,  tender,  Treveran 

gibber,  miser,  hump-backed,  forlorn 

dexter,  right,  has  dextera,  dexterum,  or  dextra,  dextrum,  G.  dexteri, 
or  dextri,  etc. 

244.  (617.)  Other  stems  in  -ro-  have  a  vowel  before  r  only 
in  the  nominative  singular  masculine  -er(i49);  they  are  de- 
clined as  follows: 


Example 

M.  aeger,  F.  aegra,  Ne.  aegrum,  ///, 

Stems 

aegro-,  aegra- 

Singular 

Plural 

Masc. 

Fbm.         Nbut. 

Masc. 

Fbm. 

Nbut. 

Nom. 

aeger 

aegra      aegrum      acgri 

aegrae 

aegra 

Gen. 

aegri 

aegrae   aegri          aegrorum 

aegrarum 

aegrorum 

Dat. 

aegro 

aegrae   aegro         aegris 

aegris 

aegris 

Ace. 

aegrum  aegram  aegrum  1  aegros 

aegras 

aegra 

Abl. 

aegro 

aegra     aeg^ro      |  aegris 

aegris 

aegns 

245.  (618.)  Nine  adjectives  or  adjective  pronouns  have  the 
pronoun  form  -lus  in  the  genitive  singular  and  -1  in  the  dative 

42 


The  Noun :  Adjectives 


[246-250 


singular,  for  masculine,  feminine,  and  neuter  alike  ;  they  are 
the  foUowine: 


alius,  another 
solus,  alone 
totus,  whole 


unus,  one 

lillus,  any  at  all 

niillus,  710 


alter,  the  other 

uter,  which  of  the  two 

neuter,  neither 


246.  (619.)  Of  the  above  words,  those  with  the  nominative  in  -us  are 
declined  like  iinus  (263).  But  alius  has  N.  and  Ac.  Ne.  aliud;  for  the 
G.,  alterfus  is  always  used,  except  in  the  combination  alius  modi,  of 
another  sort,  alter  is  declined  like  liber  (243),  except  in  the  genitive 
singular  alteiius  and  dative  alteri.     For  uter  and  its  derivatives,  see  291. 

247.  (620.)  The  ordinary  genitive  and  dative  of  -o-  and  -a-  stems, 
from  some  of  the  above  words,  is  sometimes  found :  G.  and  D.  aliae, 
solae,  alterae,  D.  alio,  nullo,  etc. 


CONSONANT    STEMS 

OF  TWO   ENDINGS 


248.  (621.)  The  only  consonant  stems  of  two  endings  are 
comparatives;  they  are  declined  as  follows: 


Example 
Stems 

M.  and  F.  tristior,  Ne.  tristius,  sadUer, 
tristior-,  tristius- 

Norn. 

Gen. 

DaU 

Ace. 

Abl. 

Singular 

Plural 

Masc.  and  Fem.               Neut. 
tristior                 tristius 
tristidris              tristioris 
tristidri                tristiori 
tristiorem            tristius 
tristiore               tristiore 

Masc.  and  Fkm.                    Neut. 
tristiores               tristiora 
tristiorum              tristiorum 
tristidribus            tristioribus 
tristiores               tristiora 
tristioribus            tristioribus 

249.  (622.)  The  ablative  rarely  has  -i  for  -e:  as,  meliori  (177);  the 
accusative  plural  masculine  and  feminine  rarely  have  -is:  as,  melioris. 

250.  (623.)  plus,  more,  has  in  the  singular  only  Ne.  N.  and  Ac.  plus, 
G.  pliiris,  and  Ab.  plure.  Plural:  N.  M.  and  F.  plures.  Ne.  plura,  G. 
plurium,  D.  and  Ab.  pluribus,  Ac.  M.  and  F.  plures  or  pluris,  Ne.  pldra. 

43 


25 1-2 54 J  Words:  Inflection 


OF   ONE   ENDING 

251.  (624.)  A  dozen    adjectives  "  of   one    ending,"  mostly 

words  applying  to  persons,  with  consonant  stems  throughout, 

have  no  nominative  or  accusative  neuter  plural;  they  are: 

caelebs,  compos,  unmarried,  mas-  pubes,  impubes,  mangrawti,  immature 

ter  of  sospes,  superstes,  safe,  surviving 

*deses,  dives,  lazy,  rich  pauper,  cicur,  poor,  tame 
particeps,  princeps,  sharing,  first 

252.  (625.)  When  these  adjectives  have  a  neuter,  it  is  the  same  as  the 
gender  forms,  except  in  the  accusative  singular;  they  are  declined  as 
follows : 

M.  F.  and  Ne.  dives,  rich,  stem  divit-. 

Singular:  N.  dives,  G.  divitis,  D.  diviti,  Ac.  M.  and  F.  divitem,  Ne. 
dives,  Ab.  divite.  Plural  :  N.  and  Ac.  M.  and  F.  divites,  G.  divitum,  D. 
and  Ab.  divitibus. 

253.  (626.)  vetus,  old,  G.  veteris,  is  also  declined  like  dives,  but  has  a 
Ne.  PI.  N.  and  Ac.  vetera;  the  Ab.  S.  is  regularly  vetere,  but  veteri  is 
sometimes  used. 


STEMS    IN    -i- 

OF  THREE   ENDINGS 

254.  (627.)  A  dozen  adjectives  with  stems  in  -bri-,  -cri-,  or 
-tri-,  have  a  distinctive  form  in  -er  for  the  masculine  nomin- 
ative singular;  they  are: 

celeber,  thronged  volucer,  winged  ptdestett  foot' 

saluber,  healthy  campester,  of  a  plain  puter,  rotten 

acer,  keeti  equester,  cavalry-  Silvester,  woody 

alacer,  lively  paluster,  of  a  swamp  terrester,  land- 

So  also  celer,  swift.  The  names  of  months,  September,  October, 
November,  December,  are  also  adjectives  with  stems  in  -bri-,  but  arc 
not  used  in  the  neuter.  Other  adjectives  with  stems  in  -bri-,  -cri-,  or 
-tri-,  have  no  distinctive  form  for  the  masculine  nominative  singular: 
as,  muliebris,  mediocris,  inliistris. 

44 


The  Noun:  Adjectives  [255-257 

255.  (628.)  These  adjectives  are  declined  as  follows : 


Example 

M. 

acer,  F. 

acris,  Ne,  acre,  sharp, 

Stem 

acri- 

Singular 

Plural 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Norn. 

acer 

acris 

acre 

acres 

acres 

acria 

Gen. 

acris 

acris 

acris 

acrmm 

acrium 

acrium 

Dat. 

acri 

acri 

acri 

acribus 

acribus 

acribus 

Ace. 

acrem 

acrem 

acre 

acris,  -es 

acris,  -es 

acria 

Abl. 

acri 

acri 

acri 

acribus 

acribus 

acribus 

256.  (629.)  In  all  cases  but  the  masculine  nominative  singular  these 
adjectives  are  just  like  those  in  -i-  "of  two  endings"  (257).  But  the 
ablative  always  has  -1,  never  -e,  and  the  genitive  plural  always  has  -ium, 
never  -um.  In  celer  the  second  e  belongs  to  the  stem  :  M.  celer,  F. 
celeris,  Ne.  celere ;  the  genitive  plural,  which  is  celerum,  is  found  only 
as  a  substantive. 


OF  TWO   ENDINGS 


257.  (630.)  Adjectives  "  of  two  endings  "  with  stems  in  -i- 
are  declined  as  follows : 


Example 
Stem 

M.  and  F.  brevis,  Ne.  breve,  short, 
brevi- 

N077t. 

Gen. 
Dat. 

Ace. 
Abl. 

Singular 

Plural 

Masc.  and  Fem.       Neut. 

brevis            breve 
brevis            brevis 
brevi              brevi 
brevem          breve 
brevi             brevi 

Masc  and  Fem.             Neut. 

breves               brevia 
brevium            brevium 
brevibus            brevibus 
brevis,  -es         brevia 
brevibus            brevibus 

45 


258-261] 


Words :   Inflection 


258.  (631.)  The  ablative  is  sometimes -e  when  these   adjectives  are 
used  substantively  or  in  verse.  The  genitive  plural  is  rarely  -um  for-ium. 


OF  ONE   ENDING 


259.  (632.)  Most  adjectives  "of  one  ending  "  have  a  conso- 
nant form  of  the  stem  in  the  singular,  except  usually  in  the 
ablative  (260),  and  an  -i-  stem  in  the  plural ;  they  are  declined 
as  follows: 


Examples 

M.  F.  and  Ne. 

audax,  bold. 

M.  F.  and  Ne. 

regens,  ruling. 

Stems 

audac(i)- 

regent(i)- 

Singular 

Masc.  and  Fem. 

Neut. 

M Asc.  AND  Fem. 

Nhut. 

Norn. 

audax 

audax 

regens 

regens 

Gen. 

audacis 

audacis 

regentis 

regentis 

Dat. 

audaci 

audaci 

regenti 

regenti 

Ace. 

audacem 

audax 

regentem 

regens 

Abl. 

audaci 

audaci 

regente,  -I 

regente,  -i 

Plural 

Masc.  and  Fhm. 

Nhut. 

Masc  and  Fem. 

Nbut. 

Norn. 

audaces 

audacia 

regentes 

regentia 

Gen. 

audacium 

audacium 

regentium 

regentium 

Dat. 

audacibus 

audacibus 

regentibus 

regentibus 

Ace. 

audacis,  -es 

audacia 

regentis,  -es 

regentia 

Abl. 

audacibus 

audacibus 

regentibus 

regentibus 

260.  (633.)  Present  participles  have  -i  in  the  ablative,  when  they  are 
psed  as  adjectives,  otherwise  -e  (203). 

261.  (636.)  The  following^  have  -I  in  the  ablative,  but  -um  of  conso- 
nant stems  in  the  genitive  plural,  and  no  nominative  or  accusative  neuter 
plural :  inops,  without  means,  vigil,  wide-awake,  memor,  remembering, 
degener,  degenerate. 


The  Noun:   Adjectives 


[262-267 


THE   NUMERAL   ADJECTIVE 

262.  (637.)  Of  the  cardinals,  unus,  duo,  tres,  and  the  hun- 
dreds except  centum  are  declined.  The  other  cardinals  are 
not  declined  (see  1074). 

263.  (638.)  unus,  one,  is  declined  as  follows : 


Singular 

Plural 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

JVom. 

unus 

fina 

unum 

uni 

finae 

fina 

Gen. 

unlus 

finius 

unius 

unorum 

finarum 

finorum 

Dat. 

uni 

uni 

uni 

finis 

finis 

finis 

Ace. 

unum 

unam 

unum 

finds 

finas 

fina 

Abl. 

uno 

una 

fino 

finis 

finis 

finis 

Voc. 

fine 

264.  (639.)  duo,  two,  and  tres,  tJirce,  are  declined  as  fol- 
lows : 


Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Masc.  and  Fem. 

Neut. 

Novi. 

duo 

duae 

duo 

tres 

tria 

Gen. 

duorum 

duarum 

duorum 

trium 

trium 

Dat. 

duobus 

duabus 

duobus 

tribus 

tribus 

Ace. 

duo  or  duos 

duas 

duo 

tres  or  tris 

tria 

Abl. 

duobus 

duabus 

duobus 

tribus 

tribus 

265.  (640.)  ambo,  both,  is  declined  like  duo,  but  has -6  in  the  nomi- 
native and  accusative,  and  only  amborum  and  ambarum  in  the  genitive 
plural.     For  the  forms  duo,  ambo,  see  123. 

266.  (641.)  Hundreds  are  declined  like  the  plural  of  bonus  (242). 

267.  (642.)  The  adjective  mille,  thousajid,  is  not  declined.  The  sub- 
stantive has  in  the  singular  only  N.  Ac.  Ab.  mille,  but  a  complete  plural : 
N.  and  Ac.  millia  (milia),  G.  millium  (milium),  D.  and  Ab.  millibus  (mili- 
bus). 

47 


268-272] 


Words:  Inflection 


268.  (643.)  Ordinals,  as  primus,  first,  and  distributives,  as  bini,  two 
each,  are  declined  like  bonus  (242).  But  distributives  seldom  have  a 
singular,  and  often  have  the  genitive  plural  -um  (154):  as,  binum. 


THE   PRONOUN 

THE  PERSONAL  AND   REFLEXIVE   PRONOUN 

269.  (644.)  The  pronoun  of  the  first  person,  ego,  /,  of  the 
second  person,  tu,  thou,  and  the  reflexive  pronoun,  sui,  se, 
himself,  Jierself,  itself,  themselves,  are  declined  as  follows: 


ego,  / 

tu,  thou 

sui,  self 

Sing. 

Plur. 

Sing. 

Plur. 

Sing.  &  Plur. 

Nom. 
Gen. 
Vat. 
Ace. 
A  hi. 

ego 

mei 

mihf,  mi 
me 
me 

nos 

nostrum,  -tri 
nobis 
nos 
nobis 

tu 

tui 

tib! 

te 

t6 

vos 

vestrum,  -tri 
vobis 
vos 
vobis 

sui 
sibi 
se 
se 

270.  (650.)  Emphasis  is  given  (i.)  by  reduplication  (56):  N.  tute; 
with  -ne  interrogative,  tutine ;  Ac.  and  Ab.  meme,  tete,  rare;  sese,  very 
common.  (2.)  by  -met  added  to  any  case  but  the  genitive  plural:  as, 
egomet;  but  tii  has  only  tutemet  or  tiitimet. 


THK   PERSONAL   AND   REFLEXIVE    POSSESSIVE 

271.  (652.)  The  possessives  of  ego,  tu,  and  sui,  are  meus, 
mine,  tuus,  thine,  and  suus,  his,  her,  its,  their  {own),  declined 
like  bonus  (242),  except  that  meus  has  ml  in  the  vocative 
singular  masculine  (152);  those  of  nos  and  vos  are  noster, 
our,  and  voster,  later  vester,  j/our,  declined  like  aeger  (244). 

272.  (655.)  Emphasis  is  given  by  -pte,  which  Is  oftenest  found  with 
the  ablative :  as,  suopte. 

48 


The  Noun:  Pronouns 


[273-277 


THE   DEMONSTRATIVE   PRONOUN 

273.  (660.)  The  demonstrative  pronouns  are  hic,  this,  this 
near  me ;  iste,  istic,  that,  that  near  you;  and  ille,  illic,  yon- 
der, that. 

274.  (661.)  The  demonstrative  pronoun  hic,  this,  this  near 
me,  is  declined  as  follows: 


Singular 

Plural 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

N'om. 

hic 

haec 

hoc 

hi 

hae 

haec 

Gen. 

huius 

huius 

huius 

horum 

harum 

horum 

Dat. 

huic 

huic 

huic 

his 

his 

his 

Ace. 

hunc 

hanc 

hoc 

hos 

has 

haec 

Abl. 

h5c 

hac 

hoc 

his 

his 

his 

275.  (663.)  The  full  form  in -ce  is  found  occasionally  after -s:  hiiiusce, 
hosce,  hasce,  hisce.  Before  -ne  interrogative  it  is  retained  in  the  form 
-ci- :  as,  hicine. 

276.  (664.)  The  nominative  plural  feminine  is  sometimes  haec. 

277.  (666.)  The  demonstrative  pronouns  iste, ///^/, //if<:?/;/^rt:r 
you,  and  ille,  yonder,  are  declined  alike,  as  follows : 


Singular 

Plural 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Nom. 

ille 

ilia 

illud 

illi 

illae 

ilia 

Gen. 

illius 

illius 

illius 

illorum 

illarum 

illdrum 

Dat. 

iUi 

illi 

illi 

illis 

illis 

illis 

Aec. 

ilium 

illam 

illud 

illos 

illas 

ilia 

Abl. 

illo 

ilia 

illo 

illis 

illis 

illis 

49 


278-281] 


Words:  Inflection 


THE  DETERMINATIVE   PRONOUN 


278.  (671.)  The  determinative  pronoun  is,  that,  the  afore- 
said, the  onej  is  declined  as  follows : 


c. 

ingular 

Plural                                      1 

1 

Masc. 

Fkm.     Neut. 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Nkut. 

Nom. 

is 

ea        id 

ei,  ii,  or  i 

eae 

ea 

Gen. 

eius 

eius    eius 

eorum 

earum 

eorum 

Dat. 

gl 

61         gi 

eis,  ils,  or  Is 

eis,  iis,  oris 

eis,  iis,  or  is 

Ace. 

eum 

earn     id 

eos 

eas 

ea 

Abl. 

eo 

ea        eo 

els,  iis,  or  is 

eis,  iis,  or  is 

eis,  iis,  or  Is 

THE   PRONOUN  OF  IDENTITY 

279.  (676.)  The  pronoun  of  identity,  idem,  the  same,  is  de- 
clined as  follows : 


Singular 

Plural 

Masc.          Fem.              Neut. 

Masc               Fkm.             Neut. 

Nom. 

idem        eadem      idem 

^'^^?)      [eaedem       eadem 
or  idem  S 

Gen. 

eiusdem  eiusdem  eiusdem 

eorundem  earundem  eorundem 

Dat. 

eidem      eidem       eidem 

eisdem     )  eisdem     )_  eisdem    \ 
or  isdem  )  or  isdem  S  or  isdem  ) 

Ace. 

eundem   eandem    idem 

edsdem      easdem       eadem 
eisdem     \  eisdem     )  eisdem    ) 
or  isdem  i  or  Isdem  )  or  Isdem  ) 

Abl. 

eodem     eadem      eodem 

280.  (677.)  In  manuscripts  and  editions,  the  plural  nominative  mas- 
culine is  often  written  iidem,  and  the  dative  and  ablative  iisdem. 


THE  INTENSIVE   PRONOUN 


281.  (679.)  The  intensive  pronoun  ipse,  himself,  stems 
ipso-,  ipsa-,  is  declined  like  ille  (277),  but  has  the  nomina- 
tive and  accusative  neuter  singular  ipsum. 


so 


The  Noun :  Pronoun 


[282-288 


THE   RELATIVE,  INTERROGATIVE,  AND    INDEFINITE   PRONOUN 
qui  AND  quis 

282.  (681.)  The  stem  qui-,  or  quo-,  qua-,  is  used  in  three  ways:  as  a 
xtX-aXxv^,  who,  which;  as  an  interrogative, -ze///^?.^  which?  what?  as  an  in- 
definite, any. 

283.  (682.)  The  relative  qui,  zvho,  which,  is  declined  as  fol- 
lows : 


Singular 

Plural 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Nom. 

qui 

quae 

quod 

qui 

quae 

quae 

Gen. 

CUIUS 

CUIUS 

cuius 

quorum 

quarum 

quorum 

Dat. 

CUl 

cui 

cui 

quibus 

quibus 

quibus 

Ace. 

quern 

quam 

quod 

quos 

quas 

quae 

Abl. 

quo 

qua 

quo 

quibus 

quibus 

quibus 

284.  (683.)  The  interrogative  adjective  qui,  quae,  quod, 
which?  what?  is  declined  like  the  relative  qui  (283). 

285.  (684.)  The  interrogative  substantive  has  in  the  nomi- 
native singular  quis,  quid,  who?  what?  the  rest  is  like  qui 
(283). 

286.  (685.)  quis  interrogative  is  sometimes  used  adjectively  with 
appellatives :  as,  quis  senator  ?  what  senator?  And  qui  is  sometimes 
used  substantively:  as,  qui  primus  Ameriam  niintiat  ?  who  is  the  first  to 
bring  the  tidings  to  Ameria  ? 

287.  (686.)  The  indefinite  quis  or  qui,  one,  any,  has  the  following 
forms : 

quis  and  quid  masculine  and  neuter  substantives,  qui  and  quod  adjec- 
tives; feminine  singular  nominative  and  neuter  plural  nominative  and 
accusative  commonly  qua,  also  quae.     The  rest  is  like  qui  (283). 

288.  (688  f.)  The  dative  or  ablative  plural  is  sometimes  quis.  The 
ablative  or  locative  is  sometimes  qui:  as  an  interrogative,  how?  as  a 
relative,  wherewith,  whereby,  masculine,  feminine,  or  neuter;  especially 
referring  to  an  indefinite  person,  and  with  cum  attached,  quicum;  and 
as  an  indefinite,  somehow. 

51 


289-292]  Words:  Inflection 


DERIVATIVES   OF   qui  AND   quis 

289.  (691.)  The  derivatives  of  qui  and  quis  have  commonly 
quis  and  quid  as  substantives,  and  qui  and  quod  as  adjectives. 
Forms  requiring  special  mention  are  named  below : 

290.  (692.)  quisquis,  whoever,  whatever,  everybody  who,  everything 
which,  an  indefinite  relative,  has  only  these  forms  in  common  use:  quis- 
quis, quicquid  or  quidquid,  as  adjective  quoquo. 

aliquis  or  aliqui,  aliqua,  aliquid  or  aliquod,  some  one,  softie;  Ab.  M. 
sometimes,  Ne.  often  aliqui  (288).     PI.  Ne.  N.  and  Ac.  only  aliqua. 

ecquis  or  ecqui,  ecqua  or  ecquae,  ecquid  or  ecquod,  any? 

quicuraque,  quaecumque,  quodcumque,  whoever,  whichever,  everybody 
who,  everything  whicJi. 

quidam,  quaedam,  quiddam  or  quoddam,  a,  a  certain,  some  one,  so  and 
so;  Ac.  quendam,  quandam.     PI.  G.  quorundam,  quarundam. 

quilibet,  quaelibet,  quidlibet  or  quodlibet,  any  you  please. 

quispiam,  quaepiam,  quippiam,  quidpiam  or  quodpiam,  any,  any  one. 

quisquam,  quicquam  or  quidquam,  anybody  at  all,  anything  at  all,  gen- 
erally a  substantive,  less  frequently  an  adjective,  any  at  all.  There  is 
no  distinctive  feminine  form.     No  plural. 

quisque,  quaeque,  quicque,  quidque  or  quodque,  each.  Sometimes  unus 
is  prefixed:  iinusquisque  ;  both  parts  are  declined. 

quivis,  quaevis,  quidvis  or  quodvis,  which  you  will. 

uter 

291.  (693.)  uter,  utra,  utrum,  whether?  which  of  the  two? 

has  the  genitive  singular  utrius,  and  the  dative  singular  utri. 

The  rest  is  like  aeger  (244).  uter  is  sometimes  relative,  whichsoever, 
or  indefinite,  either  of  the  two. 

DERIVATIVES  OF  UtCf 

292.  (694.)  The  derivatives  of  uter  are  declined  like  uter;  they  are: 
neuter,  neither  of  the  two,  genitive  neutrius,  always  with  1, 

utercumque,  utracumque,  utrumcumque,  whichei>er  of  the  two,  either 

of  the  two. 

52 


The  Noun  :  Adverbs  [293-297 

uterlibet,  whicheiier  you  please. 

uterque,  whichsoever,  both.     G.  always  utriusque. 

utervis,  whichever  you  wish. 

alteruter,  F.  altera  utra,  Ne,  alterutrum  or  alterum  utrum,  one  or  the 
other,  G.  alterius  utrlus,  D.  alterutri,  Ac.  M.  alterutrum  or  alterum  utrum, 
F.  alteram  utram,  Ab.  alterutrd  or  altero  utro,  F.  altera  utra.     No  PI. 


THE    ADVERB 


NOUNS   AS  ADVERBS 

293.  (696.)  Adverbs  are  chiefly  noun  or  pronoun  cases  which  hav^e 
become  fixed  in  a  specific  form  and  with  a  specific  meaning.  Many  of 
these  words  were  still  felt  to  be  live  cases,  even  in  the  developed  period 
of  the  language;  with  others  the  consciousness  of  their  noun  character 
was  lost. 

294.  (697.)  Three  cases  are  used  adverbially:  the  accusa- 
tive, the  ablative,  and  the  locative. 

295.  (698.)  The  rather  indeterminate  meaning  of  the  accusative  and 
the  ablative  is  sometimes  more  exactly  defined  by  a  preposition.  The 
preposition  may  either  accompany  its  usual  case:  as,  admodum,  ilico ; 
or  it  may  be  loosely  prefixed,  with  more  of  the  nature  of  an  adverb 
than  of  a  preposition,  to  a  case  with  which  it  is  not  ordinarily  used :  as, 
interea. 

(I.)     ACCUSATIVE 
(^.)      ACCUSATIVE   OF   SUBSTANTIVES 

296.  (699  f.)  vicem,  instead;  partim,  in  part;  admodum,  to  a  degree, 
very ;  invicem,  i7i  turn,  each  other  ;  cautim,  warily;  statim,  at  once;  sen- 
simy  perceptibly,  gradually  ;  furtim,  stealthily. 

(b.)   ACCUSATIVE  OF  ADJECTIVES  AND  PRONOUNS 

297.  (701.)  Neuters:  all  comparative  adverbs  in-ius  (90):  as, doctius, 
ffiore  learnedly;  so  minus,  less;  prlmum, yfr^/,  secundum,  secondly,  etc.; 
tum,  then;  commodum,  just  in  time;  minimum,  at  least;  postremum,  at 
last;  {a.uie,  easily ;  recenSf  lately.     Plural:  cetera.^ /or  the  rest. 

53 


298-305]  Words:   Inflection 

298.  (702.)  Feminines:  bifariam,  twofold ;  tam,  so;  quam,  as,  how. 
Plural :  alias,  on  other  occasions, 

(2.)    ABLATIVE 
{a.)     ABLATIVE  OF  SUBSTANTIVES 

299.  (703.)  noctu,  by  iiight ;  sponte,  voluntarily ;  forte,  by  chance;  quo- 
tdLxmxs,  yearly ;  gratiis  or  gratis, /^r  nothing;  ilico,  on  the  spot  (in  loco); 
foris,  out  of  doors. 

{b.)      ABLATIVE  OF   ADJECTIVES  AND  PRONOUNS 

300.  (704.)  Many  adverbs  in  -6  are  formed  from  adjectives  of  time : 
as,  perpetud,  to  the  e?id;  cvehTO^  frequently ;  raro,  seldom;  primo,  at  first. 

301.  (705.)  Instead  of  -6,  neuter  ablatives  commonly  have  -e:  as, 
longe, /rtr;  docte,  wisely.  So  also  superlatives:  facillime,  7nost  easily. 
A  few  ablatives  have  -e:  as,  repente,  suddenly. 

302.  (707.)  Feminines:  many  in  -a:  una,  together;  contra,  against; 
extra,  outside;  friistra,  in  vain.  So,  especially,  adverbs  denoting  the 
"  route  by  which  "  :  hac,  this  way,  recta,  straightway. 

(3.)    LOCATIVE 

303  (708  f.)  illi,  commonly  illi-c,  there  (illo-),  isti,  commonly  i^I-c, 
where  you  are,  hi-c,  here;  sic,  so ;  ibi,  there;  ubf,  where. 

OTHER  ENDINGS 

304.  (710.)  Besides  the  above,  other  endings  are  also  found  in  words 
of  this  class:  as, 

-tus :  as,  intus,  from  within,  within ;  antiquitus,  from  old  times, 
anciently;  -ter:  inter,  between;  denoting  manner:  acriter,  sharply ;9saAXi' 
ter,  affectionately ;  rarely  from  -o-  stems:  as,  firmiter,  steadfastly. 

SENTENCES  AS  ADVERBS 

305.  (712.)  Some  adverbs  are  condensed  sentences:  as, 

ilicet,  you  may  go,  straightway  (ire  licet) ;  scilicet,  you  may  know,  ob- 
viously, of  course  (scire  licet) ;  forsitan,  maybe  (fors  sit  an). 


54 


The  Verb:  Stem  [306-310 


(B.)    INFLECTION    OF   THE   VERB 

306.  (713.)  The  verb  is  inflected  by  attaching  per- 
son endings  to  the  several  stems. 


THE  STEM 


307.  (714.)  The  stem  contains  the  meaning  of  the  verb  (58),  and  also 
denotes  the  mode  (mood)  and  the  time  (tense)  of  the  action  as  viewed 
by  the  speaker. 

308.  (715.)  There  are  three  ^OOT>'i,  Indicative,  Subjunctive, 
and  Impe7'ative. 

309.  (716.)  There  are  six  TENSES  in  the  indicative,  three 
of  the  present  system,  Present,  Imperfect,  and  Future ;  and 
three  of  the  perfect  system.  Perfect,  Pluperfect,  and  Future 
Perfect.  The  subjunctive  lacks  the  futures;  the  imperative 
has  only  the  present. 

The  meanings  of  the  moods  and  tenses  are  best  learned  from  read- 
ing. No  satisfactory  translation  can  be  given  in  the  paradigms,  es- 
pecially of  the  subjunctive,  which  requires  a  variety  of  translations  for 
its  various  uses. 

310.  (718-720.)  The  verb  has  two  principal  stems:  I.  The 
Present  stem,  which  is  the  base  of  the  present  system;  II. 
The  Perfect  stem,  which  is  the  base  of  the  perfect  active 
system. 

The  perfect  system  has  no  passive;  its  place  is  supplied  by  the  per- 
fect participle  with  a  form  of  sum,  am,  or  less  frequently  of  fui,  mn 
become. 

Some  verbs  have  a  present  and  perfect  system  made  up  of  two  sep- 
arate roots  or  stems:  as,  present  indicative  fero,  carry,  perfect  indicative 
tuli,  and  perfect  participle  latus  ;  present  sum,  am,  perfect  fuI. 


55 


S^i-S^^li 


Words:  Infleciion 


THE  PERSON  ENDING 

3".  (721.)  The  person  ending  limits  the  meaning  of  the 
stem  by  pointing  out  the  person  of  the  subject.  There  are 
three  Persons,  the  First,  used  of  the  speaker,  the  Second,  of 
what  is  spoken  to,  and  the  Third,  of  what  is  spoken  of.  The 
person  ending  furthermore  indicates  number  and  voice. 

312.  (722.)  There  are  two  NUMBERS:  the  Singitiar,  used 
of  one,  and  the  Plural,  used  of  more  than  one. 

313.  (723.)  There  are  two  VOICES:  the  Active,  indicating 
that  the  subject  acts,  and  the  Passive,  indicating  that  the  sub- 
ject acts  on  himself,  or  more  commonly  is  acted  on  by  an- 
other. 

314.  (724.)  Only  transitive  verbs  have  all  persons  of  the  passive.  In- 
transitive verbs  have  in  the  passive  only  the  third  person  singular,  used 
impersonally ;  the  participle  in  this  construction  is  neuter. 

315.  (725.)  Some  verbs  have  only  the  passive  person  end- 
ings, but  with  a  reflexive  or  an  active  meaning;  such  are 
called  Deponents:  see  353. 

316.  (726.)  The  person  endings  are  as  follows: 


Voice 

Active 

Passive 

Mood 

Ind.  and  Sub. 

Impbrativb 

Ind.  and  Sub. 

iMPBRATIVm 

Number 

~First 
person 

Sing. 

Plur. 

Sing. 

Plur. 

Sing. 

Plur. 

Sing. 

Plur. 

-m 

-mU8 

not  used 

not  used 

-r 

-mur 

not  used 

not  used 

Second 
person 

-s 

-tis 

none,  -t6 

-te,  -tote 

-ris,  -re 
-tur 

[-mini] 

-re,  -tor 

[-mini] 

Third 
person 

-t 

-nt 

-t5 

-nt5 

-ntur 

-tor 

-ntor 

56 


The  Verb:  Principal  Parts         [317-320 

317.  (727.)  In  the  perfect  indicative  active,  the  second  person  singu- 
lar ends  in  -ti,  and  the  third  person  plural  in  -runt  or  in  -re.  -re  is  most 
used  in  poetry  and  history;  -runt,  by  Cicero,  and  almost  always  by 
Caesar. 

318.  (728.)  In  the  indicative,  -m  is  not  used  in  the  present  (except  in 
sum,  am,  and  inquam,  quoth  I),  in  the  perfect  or  future  perfect,  or  in  the 
future  in  -bo. 

NOUNS  OF   THE    VERB 

319.  (732.)  The  verb  is  accompanied  by  some  nouns,  which 
are  conveniently,  though  not  quite  accurately,  reckoned  parts 
of  the  verb ;  they  are  : 

Three  Infinitives,  Prese?it  Active  and  Passive,  and  Perfect  Active, 
sometimes  called  the  hifiiiitive  Mood.  For  the  future  active  and  pas- 
sive and  the  perfect  passive,  compound  forms  are  used. 

The  GeruJid  's.x\d  the  Gerimdive. 

Two  Supines. 

Three  Participles,  Present  and  Future  Active,  and  Perfect  Passive. 

PRINCIPAL    PARTS 

320.  (734.)  The  Principal  Parts  of  a  verb  are  the 
Present  Indicative  Active,  Present  Infinitive  Active, 
Perfect  Indicative  Active,  and  Perfect  Participle:  as, 


Pres.  Indic. 

Pres.  Infin. 

Perf.  Indic. 

Perf.  Part. 

rego,  rule 

regere 

rexi 

rectus 

laudo,  praise 

laudare 

laudavi 

laudatus 

moneo,  adinse 

monere 

monul 

monitus 

audio,  hear 

audlre 

audlvi 

audltus 

The  Principal  Parts  of  deponents  are  the  Present  Itidicative,  Present 
Infinitive,  and  Perfect  Participle :  as, 

Pres.  Indic.  Pres.  Infin.  Perf.  Part. 

queror,  complaiii  queri  questus 

miror,  wonder  mirari  miratus 

vereor,/<?^r  vereri  veritus 

partior,  share  partiri  partitus 

57 


321-325]  Words:  Inflection 


DESIGNATION   OF  THE  VERB 

321.  (737.)  For  convenience,  verbs  with  -ere  in  the  present  infinitive 
active  are  called  Verbs  m  -ere;  those  with  -are,  -ere,  ov  -Ix^^Verbs  in 
-are,  -ere,  or  -ire,  respectively  (but  see  324).  In  like  manner  deponents 
are  designated  as  Verbs  in  -1 ;  or  Verbs  in  -arl,  -eri,  or  -iri,  respectively. 

THEME  OF  THE   VERB 

322.  C738.)  The  several  stems  of  the  verb  come  from  a  form  called 
the  Theme.  In  primitives,  the  theme  is  a  root ;  in  denominatives,  the 
theme  is  a  noun  stem. 

Thus,  reg-  in  reg-6  is  a  root ;  while  vesti-  in  vesti-o,  dress,  is  a  noun 
stem.  The  noun  stem  is  sometimes  modified  in  form.  Oftentimes  the 
noun  stem  is  only  presumed  :  as,  audi-  in  audi-o. 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  THE  VERB 

323.  (741.)  Verbs  are  divided  into  two  classes,  ac- 
cording to  the  form  of  the  present  system:  I.  Root 
verbs,  and  verbs  in  -ere,  mostly  primitive;  II.  Verbs 
in  -are,  -ere,  or  -ire,  mostly  denominative. 

324.  (742.)  Verbs  are  sometimes  arranged  without  regard  to  differ- 
ence of  kind,  in  the  alphabetical  order  of  the  vowel  before  -s  of  the 
second  person  singular  of  the  present  indicative  active,  a,  e,  i,  i:  thus, 
laudas,  mones,  regis,  audis,  sometipies  called  \.\\q.  first,  second,  third,  and 
fourth  conjtigation  respectively. 


I.  PRIMITIVE  VERBS 

325.  (743.)  A  few  of  the  oldest  and  commonest  verbs  of 
everyday  life  have  a  bare  root  as  stem  in  the  present  indica- 
tive or  in  parts  of  it ;  and  some  of  them  have  other  peculiar- 
ities ;  such  are  called  Root  Verbs,  or  by  some,  irregular  (326- 
340).     Most  primitives  are  verbs  in  -ere,  like  rego  (341). 

58 


The  Verb:  sum,  am 


[326 


ROOT  VERBS 

IRREGULAR     VERBS 

sum,  am  (e  s-,  s-) 
326.  (745.)  sum,  am,  is  used  only  in  the  present  system, 
The  perfect  system  is  supplied  by  forms  of  fui  (f  u-). 


Prks.  Indic. 

sum 


PRINCIPAL    PARTS 
Pres.  Infin.  Perf.  Indic. 


Perf.  Part. 


esse 


(fui) 


INDICATIVE   MOOD 

Present  Tense 


Singuh 


sum,  I  am 
es,  thou  art 
est,  he  is 

eram,  /  was 
eras,  thou  wert 
erat,  he  was 

ero,  /  shall  be 
eris,  thou  wilt  be 
erit,  he  will  be 

fui,  /  have  been,  or  was 
fuisti,  thou  hast  been,  or  wert 
fuit,  he  has  been,  or  was 


Plural 


fueram,  /  had  been 
fueras,  thou  hadst  been 
fuerat,  he  had  been 


sumus,  we  are 
estis,  you  are 
sunt,  they  are 

Imperfect  Tense 

eramus,  we  were 
eratis,  you  were 
erant,  they  were 

Future  Tense 

erimus,  we  shall  be 
eritis,  you  will  be 
erunt,  they  will  be 

Perfect  Tense 

fuimus,  we  have  been,  or  were 
fuistis,  yoii  have  been,  or  7vere 
fuerunt,  or  -re,  they  have  been,  or  were 

Pluperfect  Tense 

fueramus,  we  had  been 
fueratis,  you  had  been 
fuerant,  they  had  been 

Future  Perfect  Tense 


fuero,  /  shall  have  been 
fueris,  thou  wilt  have  been 
fuerit,  he  will  have  been 


fuerimus,  we  shall  have  been 
fueritis,  yott  ivill  have  been 
fuerint,  they  will  have  been 


59 


32?] 


Words :  Injiection 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD 

Present  Tense 


Singular 

sim,  may  I  he 

sis,  mayst  thou  be 

sit,  let  him  be,  may  he  be 


essem,  /  should  be 
esses,  thou  wouUist  be 
esset,  he  would  be^ 


fuerim,  /  may  have  been 
fueris,  thoii  mayst  have  been 
fuerit,  he  7nay  have  been 


Plural 


simus,  let  us  be 

sitis,  be  you,  may  you  be 

sint,  let  them  be,  may  they  be 


Imperfect  Tense 


essemus,  we  should  be 
essetis,  you  would  be 
assent,  they  would  be 


Perfect  Tense 


fuerimus,  we  may  ha7>e  been 
fueritis,  you  may  hai'e  been 
fuerint,  they  may  ha-i'e  been 


Pluperfect  Tense 


fuissem,  /  should  have  been 
fuisses,  thou  wouldst  have  been 
fuisset,  he  would  have  been 


fuissemus,  we  should  have  been 
fuissetis,  you  would  have  been 
fuissent,  they  would  have  been 


IMPERATIVE   MOOD 


es  or  esto,  be  thou,  thou  shalt  be 
esto,  he  shall  be 


este  or  estote,  be  you,  you  shall  be 
sunto,  they  shall  be 


NOUNS  OF  THE  VERB 


INFINITIVE 


Pres.  esse,  to  be 

Per/,  fuisse,  to  have  been 

Put.    futiirus  esse,  to  be  going  to  be 


PARTICIPLE 


Pres.  

Per/.  

Put.    futurus,  going  to  be 


327.  (750.)  The  subjunctive  imperfect  forem,  foris,  forct,  forent,  and 
the  infinitive  fore  are  sometimes  used  instead  of  essem,  esses,  esset, 
essent,  and  futurus  esse. 

60 


The  Verb:  possum,  r^;/ ;  &^give  [328-330 

328.  (751.)  possum,  can. 


Principal  parts  :  possum,  posse ;  (potui, ) 

INDICATIVE   MOOD 

Pres. 
Imp. 
Put. 

Singular 
possum,  potes,  potest 
poteram,  poteras,  poterat 
potero,  poteris,  poterit 

Plural 
possumus,  potestis,  possunt 
poteramus,  poteratis,  poterant 
poterimus,  poteritis,  poterunt 

SUBJUNCTIVE   MOOD 

Pres. 
Imp. 

possim,  possis,  possit              possimus,  possitis,  possint 
possem,  posses,  posset             possemus,  possetis,  possent 

INFINITIVE 

PARTICIPLE 

Pres. 

posse 

329. 

perfect 


330. 


(752  f.)  possum  is  formed  from  potis  or  pote,  able,  and  sum.    The 
potui,  from  an  obsolete  potere,  is  conjugated  like  fui  (326). 

do,  give  (d  a-) 
(754.)  The  present  system  of  do  is  as  follows : 


Principal  parts  :  do,  dare,  dedl,  datus 

ACTIVE    VOICE 

INDICATIVE    MOOD 

Singular 

Plural 

Pres. 

do,  das,  dat 

damus,  datis,  dant 

Imp. 

dabam,  dabas,  dabat 

dabamus,  dabatis,  dabant 

Put. 

dabd,  dabis,  dabit 

dabimus,  dabitis,  dabunt 

SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD 

Pres. 

dem,  des,  det                             demus,  detis,  dent 

Imp. 

darem,  dares,  daret                  daremus,  daretis,  darent 

IMPERAriVE   MOOD 

da  or  dato,  dato                    |    date  or  datote,  danto 

INFINITIVE 

PARTICIPLE 

Pres. 

dare 

GERUND 

dans 

Gen. 

dandi,  etc. 

61 


331^332] 


Words:  hiflection 


Pres. 

Imp. 

Put. 


Pres. 
Imp. 


Singular 

,  daris  or  -re,  datur 

dabar,  dabare  or  -ris,  da 


PASSIVE    VOICE 

INDICATIVE   MOOD 

Plural 
damur,  damini,  dantur 
dabamur,  dabamini,  dabantur 


batur 
dabor,  dabere  or  -ris,  da- 
bitur 


dabimur,  dabimini,  dabuntur 


SUBJUNCTIVE   MOOD 


demini,  dentur 


daremur,  daremini,  darentur 


,  dere  or  -ris,  detur 

darer,  darere  or  -ris,  dare- 
tur 

IMPERATIVE   MOOD 

dare  or  dator,  dator  |     damini,  dantor 


Pres. 


INFINITIVE 


GERUNDIVE 


dari 


dandus 


inquam,  say  /,  quoth  I 

331.  (760.)  inquam,  say  I,  is  chiefly  used  in  quoting  a  person's  direct 
words;  and,  from  its  meaning,  is  naturally  very  defective.  The  only 
parts  in  common  use  are  the  following: 


Pres. 
Put. 


INDICATIVE   MOOD 

Singular 
inquam,  inquis,  inquit 
,  inquies,  inquiet 


Plural 

,  inquiunt 


332 

.  (762.)               e6,^^(i-forei-,  i-) 

Principal  parts :  eo,  Ire,  ii,  itum 

INDICATIVE   MOOD 

Singular 

Plural 

Pres. 

eo.  Is,  it 

Imus,  Itis,  eunt 

Imp. 

Ibam,  Ibas,  ibat 

ibamus,  Ibatis,  ibant 

Put. 

Ibo,  ibis,  ibit 

ibimus,  ibitis,  ibunt 

Per/. 

ii,  isti,  iit  or  it 

iimus,  istis,  ierunt  or  -re 

Plup. 

ieram,  ieras,  ierat 

ieramus,  ieratis,  ierant 

P.P. 

iero,  ieris,  ierit 

ierimus,  ieritis,  ierint 

62 


The  Verb :  eo,  £"0 


[333-335 


SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD 

Pres. 

earn,  eas,  eat 

eamus,  eatis,  eant 

Imp. 

irem,  ires,  iret 

iremus,  iretis,  irent 

Per/. 

ierim,  ierls,  ierit 

ierlmus,  ieritis,  ierint 

Plup. 

Issem,  isses,  isset 

issemus,  issetis,  issent 

IMPERATIVE   MOOD                                                                       | 

i  OP  ltd,  ito 

ite  or  Itote,  eunto 

INFINITIVE 

PARTICIPLE 

Pres. 

Ire 

iens,  Gen.  euntis 

Perf. 

Isse 

itum 

Put. 

iturus  esse 

iturus 

GERUND 

SUPINE 

Gen. 

eundi 

Dat. 

eundo 

Ace. 

eundum 

Abl. 

eundd 

333.  (763  f.)  The  passive  is  only  used  impersonally,  and  has  a  neuter 
gerundive  eundum  and  participle  itum;  but  transitive  compounds,  as 
adeo,^^  up  to,  have  a  complete  passive:  as,  adeor,  adiris,  etc. 

A  few  examples  are  found  of  a  perfect  system  with  v,  as  ivi,  etc. 
This  form  is  confined  almost  exclusively  to  poetry  and  late  prose. 

Compounds  often  have  a  double  i  in  the  second  persons  of  the  per- 
fect indicative,  in  the  pluperfect  subjunctive  throughout,  and  in  the 
perfect  infinitive :  as,  abiisti,  abiissem,  abiisse. 

queo,  can 

334.  (768.)  queo,  can,  and  nequeo,  caiit,  have  the  perfect  quivl,  the 
rest  like  eo  (332);  but  they  have  no  imperative,  gerundive,  or  future 
participle,  and  the  present  participle  is  rare,  queo  is  commonly  used 
with  a  negative,  and  some  parts  only  so.     Passive  forms  are  rare. 


edo,  eat  (e  d-,  e  d-) 

335-  (769.)  edo,  eat,  has  a  present  system  with  a  formative  vowel  like 
rego  throughout  (341);  but  in  some  parts  of  the  present,  and  of  the  im- 
perfect subjunctive,  parallel  root  forms  occur,  with  d  of  the  root 
changed  to  s,  and  the  vowel  lengthened,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  follow- 
ing: 

63 


336,  337] 


Words :  Inflection 


Principal  parts  :  edo,  esse,  edi,  esus 


Pres. 

Pres. 
Imp. 


INDICATIVE   MOOD 


Singular 


Plural 


edo,  es  or  edis,  est  or  edit   |     edimus,  estis  or  editis,  edunt 


edim,  edis,  edit 
or  edam,  edas,  edat 

,  esses,  esset 

or  ederem,  ederes,  ederet 


SUBJUNCTIVE   MOOD 


edint 


or  edamus,  edatis,  edant 

essemus, ,  essent 

or  ederemus,  ederetis,  ederent 


IMPERATIVE   MOOD 

es  or  ede,  esto  or  edito         \    este  or  edite 


Pres. 


INFINITIVE 


esse 


PARTICIPLE 


edens 


336.  (770.)  In  the  passive,  the  indicative  present  estur  is  used,  and 
imperfect  subjunctive  essetur. 

337.  (773.)  void,  will,  ivish,  ivant,  am  willing  iy  oX-y  vel-). 


Principal  parts:  volo,  velle,  volui. 


Pres. 
Imp. 
Put. 
Per/. 

Plttp. 

P.P. 

Pres. 
Imp. 
Per/. 
Plttp. 


INDICATIVE    MOOD 

Singular  1 


void,  vis,  volt  or  vult 

volebam,  volebas,  volebat  \ 

volam,  voles,  volet  , 

volui,  voluisti,  voluit  j 

volueram,  volueras,  volu-  1 

erat 
voluero,  volueris,  voluerit 


Plural 
volumus,  voltis  or  vultis,  volunt 
volebamus,  volebatis,  volebant 
volemus,  voletis,  volent 
voluimus,  voluistis,  voluerunt  or 

-re 
volueramus,  volueratis,  voluerant 

voluerimus,  volueritis,  voluerint 


SUBJUNCTIVE   MOOD 


velim,  velis,  velit 
vellem,  velles,  vellet 
voluerim,  volueris,  voluerit 
voluissem,  voluisses,  volu- 
isset 


velimus,  velitis,  velint 
vellemus,  velletis,  vellent 
voluerimus,  volueritis,  voluerint 
voluissemus,  voluissetis,  voluis- 
sent 


Pres. 
Per/ 


INFINITIVE 


velle 
voluisse 


PARTICIPLK 


▼ol€nt 


64 


The  Verb:  fero,  carry  [338-340 

338.  i^'jd)  nolo,  ivoiit,  dont  want,  object,  am  not  willing. 


Principal  parts:  nolo,  nolle,  nolui. 


Pres. 

Imp. 
Put. 

Pres. 
Imp. 


INDICATIVE   MOOD 


Singular 
nolo,  non  vis,  non  volt  or 

vult 
nolebam,  nolebas,  nolebat 
,  noles,  nolet 


Plural 
nolumus,    non   voltis  or  vultis, 

nolunt 
ndlebamus,  nolebatis,  nolebant 
nolemus,  noletis,  nolent 


SUBJUNCTIVE   MOOD 

n51im,  n5lis,  nolit  I     nolimuS,  nolltis,  nolint 

nollem,  nolles,  nollet  |     nollemus,  nolletis,  nollent 

IMPERATIVE   MOOD 

noil  or  nollto,  ndlito  |     nolite  or  nolitote,  ndlunto 


Pres. 


INFINITIVE  I  PARTICIPLE 

nolle  I    


339.  (778.)  malo,  like  better,  choose  rather. 


1 

Principal  parts:  malo,  malle,  malui, 

INDICATIVE    MOOD 

Singular                       [                                Plural 

Pres. 

malo,   mavis,   mavolt    or     ;     malumus,  mavoltis  or  mavultis. 

mavult 

malunt 

Imp. 

malebam,  malebas,  male- 

malebamus,    malebatis,     male- 

bat                                        1        bant 

Put. 

,  males,  malet             j     malemus,  maletis,  malent 

SUBJUNCTIVE   MOOD 

Pres. 

malim,  malis,  malit               '     malimus,  malitis,  malint 

Imp. 

mallem,  malles,  mallet             mallemus,  malletis,  mallent 

INFINITIVE                                                            PARTICIPLE 

Pres. 

malle 

fero,  carry  (fer-) 
340.  (780.)  fero,  caj-ry^  is  used  only  in  the  present  system 


E  65 


34o] 


Words :  Inflection 


(310).     The  other  parts  are  supplied   by  forms  of  tollo,  lift 
(tol-,  tla-).     The  present  system  of  fero  is  as  follows: 


Principal  parts;  fero,  ferre;  (tuli,  latus) 

ACTIVE   VOICE 

INDICATIVE   MOOD 

Singular 

Plural 

Pres. 

fero,  fers,  fert 

ferimus,  fertis,  ferunt 

Imp. 

ferebam,  ferebas,  ferebat 

.erebamus,  ferebatis,  ferebant 

Fut. 

feram,  feres,  feret 

feremus,  feretis,  ferent 

SUBJUNCTIVE   MOOD 

Pres. 

feram,  feras,  ferat                     feramus,  feratis,  ferant 

Imp. 

ferrem,  ferres,  ferret                 ferremus,  ferretis,  ferrent 

IMPERATIVE   MOOD 

fer  or  ferto,  ferto                   1    ferte  or  fertote,  feruntd 

INFINITIVE 

PARTICIPLE 

Pres. 

ferre 

GERUND 

ferens 

Gen. 

ferendi,  etc. 

PASSIVE  VOICE 

INDICATIVE   MOOD 

Singular                                                     Plural 

Pres. 

feror,  ferris  or  -re,  fertur          ferimur,  ferimini,  feruntur 

Imp. 

ferebar,    ferebare   or  -ris,       ferebamur,  ferebamini,  ferebantur 

ferebatur 

Flit. 

ferar,  ferere  or  -ris,  feretur  i     feremur,  feremini,  ferentur 

SUHJUNCITVE   MOOD 

Pres. 

ferar,  ferare  or -ris,  feratur   1    feramur,  feramini,  fcrantur 

Imp. 

ferrer,  ferrere  or  -ris,  ferre-       ferrimur,  ferreminl,  ferrentur 

tur 

IMPERATIVE    MOOD 

ferre  or  fertor,  fertor            |    ferimini,  feruntor 

INFINITIVE 

GERUNDIVE 

Pres. 

ferrl 

ferendus 

66 


The  Verb:    Verbs  in  -QXQ 


[341 


341.  (782.) 


VERBS    IN    -ere 

THE   THIRD    CONJUGATION 

rego,  rule. 


PRINCIPAL    PARTS 

Pres.  Indic.                 Prks.   Infin.                 Perf.  Indic.                  Perf.  Part. 

reg5                 regere                 rexi                  rectus 

1 

ACTIVE    VOICE 

INDICATIVE   MOOD 

Present  Tense 

Singular 

Plural 

rego,  /  rule,  or  am  ruling 

regimus,  we  rule,  or  are  ruling 

regis,  thoti  rulest,  or  ait  ruling 

regitis,  you  rule,  or  are  ruling 

regit,  he  rules,  or  is  ruling 

regunt,  they  rule,  or  are  ruling 

Imperfect  Tense                                                  | 

regebam,  /  was  ruling,  or  /  ruled 

regebamus,  we  were  ruling,  or  %ve 

ruled 

regebas,  thou  xuert  ruling,  or  thou 

regebatis,  you  were  ruling,  or  you 

ruledst 

ruled 

regebat,  he  xvas  ruling,  or  he  ruled 

regebant,  they  were  ruling,  or  they 

ruled 

Future  Tense 

T^^dLm^  I  shall  rule                                 1     TQ^Qm\X&y  we  shall  rule 

jeges,  thou  wilt  rule                             |     regetis,  you  -cuill  rule 

reget,  he  will  rule                               1     regent,  they  will  rule 

Perfect  Tense 

rexi,  /  have  ruled,  or  /  ruled 

reximus,  we  have  ruled,  or  we  ruled 

rexisti,  thou  hast  ruled,  or  thou  ruledst 

rexistis,  jj/^M  have  ruled,  ox  you  ruled 

rexit,  he  has  ruled,  or  he  ruled 

rexerunt  or  -re,  they  have  ruled,  or 

they  ruled 

Pluperfect  Tense                                                | 

rexeram,  /  had  ruled 

rexeramus,  we  had  ruled 

rexeras,  thou  hadst  ruled 

rexeratis,  you  had  ruled 

rexerat,  he  had  ruled                            1     rexerant,  they  had  ruled 

Future  Perfect  Tense 

rexero,  /  shall  have  ruled 

rexerimus,  we  shall  have  ruled 

rexeris,  thou  wilt  have  ruled 

rexeritis,  you  will  have  ruled 

rexerit,  he  -ivill  have  ruled 

rexerint,  they  7vill  have  ruled 

67 


34i] 


Words:  Inflection 


SUBJUNCTIVE   MOOD 

Present  Tense 

Singular 
regam,  may  I  rule 
reg&S,  mayst  thou  rule 
regat,  let  him  rule 

Plural 
regamus,  let  us  rule 
regatis,  may  you  rule 
regant,  let  Hum  rule 

Imperfect  Tense 

regerem,  /  should  rule 
regeres,  thou  wouldst  rule 
regeret,  he  -would  rule 

regeremus,  we  should  rule 
regeretis,  you  would  rule 
regerent,  they  would  rule 

Perfect  Tense 

rexerim,  /  may  have  ruled 
rexeris,  thou  mayst  have  ruled 
rexerit,  lie  may  have  ruled  , 

rexerlmus,  we  may  have  ruled 
rexerltis,  you  may  have  ruled 
rexerint,  they  may  have  ruled 

Pluperfect  Tense 

rexissem,  /  should  have  ruled 
rexisses,  thou  wouldst  have  ruled 
rexisset,  he  would  have  ruled 

rexissemus,  we  should  have  ruled 
rexissetis,  you  7vould  have  ruled 
rexissent,  t/iey  would  have  ruled 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD 

rege  or  rcgito,  rtde,  thou  shall  rule     \     regite  or  regitdte,  rule,  you  shall  rule 
regito,  he  shall  rule                                \     regunto,  they  shall  rule 

NOUNS  OF  THE  VERB 

INFINITIVE 

PARTICIPLE 

Pres,     regere,  to  rule 
Per/,     rexisse,  to  have  ruled 
Put.      recturus  esse,  to  be  going  to 
rule 

Pres.     regens,  ruling 

Put.     r€cturu8,  going  to  rule 

GERUND 

SUPINE 

Gen.     regendi,  of  ruling 
Dat.     regendo,  for  ruling 
Ace.     regendum,  ruling 
Abl.     regendo,  by  ruling 

Ace.     *rgctum,  to  rule,  not  used 
Abl.      *rectu,  in  ruling,  not  used 

68 


The  Verb:    Verbs  in  -ere 


[342 


VERBS  IN  -ere 

THE   THIRD   CONJUGATION 


342.  (783.)                   regor,  am  ruled 

PASSIVE 

VOICE 

INDICATIVE   MOOD 

Pkeseni 

Tense 

Singular 

Plural 

regor,  /  am  ruled 

regimur,  %ve  are  ruled 

regeris  or  -re,  thou  art  ruled 
regitur,  he  is  ruled 

regimini,  you  are  ruled 
reguntur,  they  are  ruled 

Imprrfect  Tense 

regebar,  /  was  ruled 

regebare  or  -ris,  thou  wert  ruled 

regebatur,  he  was  ruled 

regebamur,  we  xvere  ruled 
regebaminl,  you  ivere  ruled 
regebantur,  they  zuere  ruled 

FUTURF 

Tense 

regar,  /  shall  he  ruled 

regere  or  -ris,  thou  %vilt  he  ruled 

regetur,  he  will  he  ruled 

regemur,  we  shall  be  ruled 
regemini,  you  will  be  ruled 
regentur,  they  will  he  ruled 

Perfect 

'  Tense 

rectus  sum,  /  have  been,  or  was  ruled 

recti  sumus,  we  have  been,  or  were 

ruled 

rectus  es,  thou  hast  heen,  or  7oert  ruled 

recti  estis,  you  have  been,  or  wei-e  ruled 

rectus  est,  he  has  been,  or  was  ruled 

recti  sunt,  they  have  been,  or  were  ruled 

Pluperfe 

CT  Tense 

rectus  eram,  /  had  been  ruled 

recti  eramus,  we  had  been  ruled 

rectus  eras,  thou  hadst  been  ruled 

recti  eratis,  you  had  been  ruled 

rectus  erat,  he  had  been  rided 

recti  erant,  they  had  been  ruled 

Future  Pef 

.fect  Tense 

rectus  ero,  /  shall  have  been  ruled 

recti  erimus,  we  shall  have  been  ruled 

rectus  eris,  thou  wilt  have  been  ruled 

recti  eritis,j'C7<  will  have  been  ruled . 

rectus  erit,  he  will  have  been  ruled 

recti  erunt,  they  will  have  been  ruled 

69 


342] 


Words :  Inflection 


SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD 

Present  Tense 


Singular 
regar,  may  I  be  ruled 
regare  or  -ris,  viayst  thou  be  ruled 
regatur,  let  hhn  be  ruled 


riural 
regamur,  may  ive  be  ruled 
regamini,  may  you  be  ruled 
regantur,  let  them  be  ruled 


Imperfect  Tense 


regerer,  /  should  be  ruled 

regerere  or  -ris,  thou  wouldst  be  ruled 

regeretur,  he  would  be  ruled 


regeremur,  we  should  be  rtikd 
regeremini,  you  would  be  ruled 
regerentur,  they  would  be  ruled 


Perfect  Tense 


rectus  sim,  I  may  have  been  ruled 
rectus  sis,  thou  mayst  have  been  ruled 
rectus  sit,  he  may  have  been  ruled 


recti  simus,  we  may  have  been  ruled 
recti  sitis,  you  may  have  been  ruled 
recti  sint,  they  may  have  been  ruled 


Pluperfect  Tense 


rectus   essem,   /  should  have  been 

ruled 
rectus  esses,  thou  wouldst  have  been 

ruled 
rectus  esset,  he  wotildhave  been  ruled 


recti  essemus,  we  should  have  been 

ruled 
recti  essetis,  you  would  have  been 

ruled 
recti  essent,////^  would  have  been  ruled 


regere  or  regitor,  be  ruled,  thou  shall 

be  ruled 
regitor,  he  shall  be  ruled 


IMPERATIVE   MOOD 

regimini,  be  ruled 

reguntor,  they  shall  be  ruled 


NOUNS    OF    THE  VERB 


INFINITIVE 


Pres.      regi,  to  be  ruled 
Per/,     rectus  esse,  to  have  been  ruled 
Fut.     *rectuin  iri,  to  be  going  to  be 
ruled,  not  used 


GERUNDIVE 
regendus,  to  be  ruled 

PERFECT   PARTICIPLE 
rictus,  ruled 


70 


The  Verb:    Verbs  in  -io,  -ere 


[343 


VERBS    IN    -io,  -ere 

343-  (784.)  Verbs  in  -io,  -ere,  as  capio,  capere,  take  (c  a  p-), 
drop  an  i  in  some  forms  of  the  present  and  imperfect.  The 
present  system  is  as  follows : 


ACTIVE  VOICE 

INDICATIVE   MOOD 

Singular 

Plural 

Pres. 
Imp. 

capio,  capis,  capit 
capiebam,  capiebas,  capie- 
bat 

capimus,  capitis,  capiunt 
capiebamus,     capiebatis,     capie- 
bant 

Flit. 

capiam,  capies,  capiet 

capiemus,  capietis,  capient 

SUBJUNCTIVE   MOOD 

Pres. 
Imp. 

capiam,  capias,  capiat           |  capiamus,  capiatis,  capiant 
caperem,  caperes,  caperet    1  caperemus,  caperetis,  caperent 

IMPERATIVE    MOOD 

cape  or  capito,  capitd             !  capite  or  capitote,  capiunto 

\ 
1 

INFINITIVE 

PARTICIPLE 

1    Pres. 

capere 

GERUND 

capiens 

\    Gen. 

capiendi,  etc. 

i 
j 

PASSIVE    VOICE 

INDICATIVE     MOOD 

Singular. 

Plural 

Pres. 
Imp. 

capior,  caperis  or  -re,  ca- 

pitur 
capiebar,  capiebare  or  -ris, 

capiebatur 

capimur,  capimini,  capiuntur 

capiebamur,    capiebamini,     capi- 
ebantur 

Put. 

capiar,  capiere  or  -ris,  ca- 
pietur 

capiemur,  capiemini,  capientur 

SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD 

Pres. 

capiar,  capiare  or  -ris,  ca- 
piatur 

capiamur,  capiamini,  capiantur 

Imp. 

caperer,  caperere  or  -ris,  ca- 
peretur 

caperemur,   caperemini,  caperen- 
tur 

IMPERATIVE   MOOD 

capere  or  capitor,  capitor      |  capimini,  capiuntor 

INFINITIVE                          j                                  GERUNDIVE 

Pres. 

cap!                                            i  capiendus 

71 


344-346] 


Words:  Inflection 


344.  (785.)  There  are  a  dozen  verbs  in  -io,  -ere,  like  capio,  and  three 
deponents  in  -ior,  -1.  aid,  say,  and  fid,  graw,  become,  have  certain  pecu- 
liarities. 

aio,  say,  say  ay,  avouch  (a  g-). 

345-  (786.)  aio,  say,  is  defective,  and  has  only  these  parts  in  common 
use: 


Ind.  Pres. 
Jnd.  Imp. 
Subj.  Pres. 


Singular 
aio,  ais,  ait 
aiebani,  aiebas,  aiebat 
,  aias,  aiat 


Plural 
— ,  aiunt 


aiebamus,  aiebatis,  aiebant 


fio,  become,  am  made. 

346.  (788.)  fio,  become,  and  factus  sum,  supplement  each  other:  in 
the  present  system,  the  passive  of  facio,  make,  except  the  gerundive, 
faciendus,  is  not  used,  fio,  etc.,  taking  its  place;  in  the  perfect  system, 
only  factus  sum,  etc.,  is  used. 


lud.  Pres. 
Ind.  Imp. 
Ind.  Put. 
Subj.  Pres. 
Subj.  Imp. 
Imper. 


Singular 
fio,  fis,  fit 
I  fiebam,  fiebas,  fiebat 
fiam,  fies,  fiet 
fiam,  fias,  fiat 
fierem,  fieres,  fieret 


Plural 
-,  fiunt 


fiebamus,  fiebatis,  fiebant 
fiemus,  fietis,  fient 
fiamus,  fiatis,  fiant 
fieremus,  fieretis,  fierent 

nte 


Injin.  Pres.     fieri 


Part.  Pres. 


72 


The  Verb :   Verbs  in  -are 


[347 


II.    Denominative  Verbs 
VERBS    IN   -are 

THE   FIRST   CONJUGATION 


347.  (792.)                      laudo 

praise 

PRINCIPAL    PARTS 

Pres.  Indic.               Prks.  Infin.                Perf.   Indic.               Perf.  Part. 

laudo              laudare            laudavi           laudatus 

ACTIVE   VOICE 

INDICATIVE   MOOD 

Present  Tense 

Singular 

Plural 

laudo,  I  praise,  ox  avi  praising 

laudamus,  we  praise,  or  are  praising 

laudas,  thoic  praisest,  or  art  praising 

laudatis,  you  praise,  or  aj-e  praising 

laudat,  he  praises,  or  is  praisi^tg 

laudant,  they  praise,  or  are  praising 

Imperfect  Tense                                                   | 

laudabam,    /    ivas  praising,    or    / 

laudabamus,  ive  were  praising,  or  we 

praised 

praised 

laudabas,  thou  zvert praising,  or  thou 

laudabatis,  you  were  praising,  or  you 

.  ^praisedst 

praised 

laudabat,    he    luas  praising,    or    he 

laudabant,  they  were  praising,  or  they 

praised 

praised 

Future  Tense 

\3i\x^a.hb^  I  shall  praise                          ;  \auda.himuSy  we  shall  praise 

laudabis,  thou  wilt  praise                         laudabitis,  j^m  will  praise 

laudabit,  he  will  praise                            iaudabunt,  they  will  praise 

Perfect  Tense 

laudavi,  /  have  praised,  or  I  praised 

laudavimus,  we  have  praised,  or  we 

praised 

laudavistl,  thou  hast  praised,  or  thou 

laudavistis,  jV^w  have  praised,  ox  you 

praise  dst 

praised 

laudavit,  he  has  praised,  or  he  praised 

laudaverunt  or  -re,  they  have  praised. 

or  they  praised 

Pluperfect   Tense 

laudaveram,  /  had  praised                      laudaveramus,  7ve  had  praised 

laudaveras,  thou  hadst  praised               laudaveratis,  you  had  praised 

laudaverat,  he  had  praised                      laudaverant,  they  had  praised 

Future  Pkkkf.ct  Tense 

laudavero,  /  shall  have  praised 

laudaverimus,  ive  shall  have  praised 

laudaveris,  thou  wilt  have  praised 

laudaveritis,  you  xvill  have  praised 

laudaverit,  he  7uill  have  praised 

laudaverint,  they  7uill  have  praised 

73 


347] 


Words:  Inflection 


SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD 

Present  Tense 

Singular 
laudem,  may  I  praise 
laudes,  mayst  thou  praise 
laudet,  let  him  praise 

Plural 
laudemus,  let  us  praise 
laudetis,  may  you  praise 
laudent,  let  them  praise 

Imperfect  Tense 

laudarem,  /  should  praise                     \  laudaremus,  we  should  praise 
laudares,  thou  wouldst  praise               1  laxiAsiTetiSy  you  would  praise 
laudaret,  he  -would  praise                      \  laudarent,  they  would  praise 

Perfect  Tense 

laudaverim,  /  may  have  praised 
laudaverls,  thou  mayst  have  praised 
laudaverit,  he  may  have  praised 

laudaverimus,  we  may  have  praised 
laudaveritis,  you  may  have  praised 
laudaverint,  they  may  have  praised 

Pluperfect  Tense 

laudavissem,  /  should  have  praised 

laudavisses,    thou      wouldst      have 

praised 
laudavisset,  he  would  have  praised 

laudavissemus,    we     should     have 

praised 
laudavissetis,  you  would  have  praised 

laudavissent,  they  would  have  praised 

IMPERATIVE   MOOD 

lauda  or  laudato,  praise,  thou  shall 

praise 
laudato,  he  shall  praise 

laudatc  or  laudat6te,/>;vi/j/-,  ;-<?*<  sJmU 

praise 
laudanto,  they  shall  praise 

NOUNS  OF  THE  VERB 

INFINITIVE 

PARTICIPLE 

Pres.    laud&re,  to  praise 
Per/,    laudavisse,  to  have  praised 
Put.     laudaturus  esse,  to  be  ^oing 
to  praise 

Pres.   laudans,/;YitVi«^ 

Put.     laudaturus,  going  to  praise 

GERUND 

SUPINE 

Gen.     laudandl,  of  praising 
Dat.     laudando,  for  praising 
Ace.     laudandum,  praising 
AbL     laudando,  hy  praising 

Ace.       laudatum,  to  praise 

Abl.     *laudatu,  ///  praising,  not  used 

74 


The  Verb:    Verbs  in  -are 


[348 


348.  (793.) 


VERBS    IN    -are 

THE   FIRST   CONJUGATION 

laudor,  am  praised 


PASSIVE     VOICE 

INDICATIVE   MOOD 

Present  Tense 

Singular 

Plural 

laudor,  /  am  praised 

laudamur,  7ue  are  praised 

laudaris  or  -re,  tJioti  art  praised 

laudamini,  yoti  are  praised 

laudatur,  he  is  praised 

laudantur,  they  are  praised 

Imperfect  Tense                                                  | 

laudabar,  /  was  praised 

laudabamur,  we  ivere  praised 

laudabare  or  -ris,  thou  ivert  praised 

laudabamini,  you  were  praised 

laudabatur,  he  luas  praised 

laudabantur,  they  ivere  praised 

Future  Tense 

laudabor,  /  shall  be  praised 

laudabimur,  we  shall  be  praised 

laudabere  or -ris,  thou  ivilt  be  praised 

laudabimini,  you  zuill  be  praised 

laudabitur,  he  tuill  be  praised 

laudabuntur,  they  will  be  praised 

Perfect  Tense 

laudatus  sum,  /  have  been,  or  was 

laudati  sumus,  7ue  have  been,  or  -were 

praised 

praised 

laudatus  es,  thou  hast  been,  or  zvert 

laudati  estis,  you  have  been,  or  were 

praised 

praised 

laudatus   est,   he  has  been,  or   was 

laudati  sunt,  they  have  been,  or  -were 

praised 

praised 

Pluperfect  Tense 

laudatus  eram,  /  had  been  praised 

laudati  eramus,  we  had  been  praised 

laudatus  eras,  thou  hadst  been  praised 

laudati  eratis,  you  had  been  praised 

laudatus  erat,  he  had  been  praised 

laudati  erant,  they  had  been  praised 

Future  Perfect  Tense 

XzxAdXyx^^rb,  I  shall  have  been  praised  \  laudati  erimus,  we  shall  have  been 

■       praised 

laudatus  eris,  thou  wilt  have  been      laudati    eritis,  you   will  have   been 

praised                                                             praised 

laudatus    erit,    he    luill    have    been  \  laudati    erunt,   they  will   have  been 

praised                                                       \       praised 

75 


348J 


Words:  Inflection 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD 

Present  Tense 

Singular 
lauder,  may  I  he  praised 
laudere  or  -ris,  mayst  t/ioti  he  praised 
laudetur,  let  him  be  praised 

Plural 
laudemur,  may  we  he  praised 
laudemini,  may  you  be  praised 
laudentur,  let  them  be  praised 

Imperfect  Tense 

laudarer,  I  should  be  praised 
laudarere  or  -ris,  thou  wouldst  be 

praised 
laudaretur,  he  would  be  praised 

laudaremur,  we  should  be  praised 
laudaremini,  you  would  he  praised 

laudarentur,  they  would  he  praised 

Perfect  Tense 

laudatus  sim,  I  may  have  been  praised 

laudatus  sis,  thou  mayst  have  been 

praised 
laudatus  sit,  he  may  have  been  praised 

laudati   simus,  7/v    uuiy   have  been 

praised 
laudati    sitis,  you    may  have   been 

praised 
laudati  sint,  they  may  have  been  praised 

Pluperfect  Tense 

laudatus  essem,  /  should  have  been 

praised 
laudatus  esses,  thou  zuouldst  have 

been  praised 
laudatus  esset,  he  would  have  been 

praised 

laudati  essemus,  7ve  should  have  been 

praised 
laudati  essetis,  you  would  have  been 

praised 
laudati  essent,  they  would  have  been 

praised 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD 

laudare  or  laudator,  be  praised,  thou 

shalt  be  praised 
laudator,  he  shall  be  praised 

laudamini,  be  praised 

laudantor,  they  shall  be  praised 



NOUNS   OF   THE    VERB 

INFINITIVE 

OERUNDIVE 

Pres.   laudari,  to  be  praised 

Perf.  laudatus   esse,   to  have  been 

praised 
Fut.  *laudatum    iri,  to  be  going  to 

be  praised,  not  used 

laudandus,  to  be  praised 

PERFECT   PARTICIPLE 

laudatus,  praised 

76 


The  Verb:    Verbs  in  -ere 


[349 


349.  (794.) 


VERBS    IN    -ere 

THE   SECOND  CONJUGATION 

moneo,  advise 


PRINCIPAL   PARTS 

Pres.  Indic.               Pres.  Infin. 

Perf.  Indic.               Perf.  Part. 

moneo            monere 

monui            monitus 

ACTIVE 

VOICE 

INDICATIVE    MOOD 

Present  Tense 

Singular 

Plural 

•  moneo,  /  advise,  or  am  advising 

monemus,  we  advise,  or  are  advising 

mones,  thoti  advisest,  or  art  advising 

monetis,  yoti  advise^  or  are  advising 

monet,  he  advises^  or  is  advising 

monent,  they  advise,  or  are  advising 

Imperfec 

:t  Tense 

monebam,  /  was  advising,  or  /  ad- 

moneba.mus, we  were  advising,  or  tue 

vised 

advised 

monebas,  thou  wert  advising,  or  thoti 

monebatis,  you  were  advising,  or  you 

advisedst 

advised 

monebat,  he  was  advising,  or  he  ad- 

monebant, they  were  advising,  or  they 

vised 

advised 

Future 

Tense 

monebo,  /  shall  advise 

monebimus,  we  shall  advise 

monebis,  thou  wilt  advise 

monebitis,  you  will  advise 

monebit,  he  will  advise 

monebunt,  t/uy  will  advise 

Perfect 

-  Tense 

monui,  /  have  advised,  or  /  advised 

monuimus,   we  have  advised,  or  we 

advised 

monuisti,  thoti  hast  advised,  or  tkott 

monuistis,  you  have  advised,  or  you 

advisedst 

advised 

monuit,  he  has  advised,  or  he  advised 

monuerunt  or  -re,  they  have  advised. 

or  tney  advised 

Pluperfe 

CT  Tense 

monueram,  /  had  advised 

monueramus,  2ue  had  advised 

monueras,  thon  hadst  advised 

monueratis,  you  had  advised 

monuerat,  he  had  advised 

monuerant,  they  had  advised 

Future  Pei 

RFECT  Tense 

monuero,  /  shall  have  advised 

monuerimus,  we  shall  have  advised 

monueris,  thou  wilt  have  advised 

monueritis,  you  will  have  advised 

monuerit,  he  ivill  have  advised 

monuerint,  they  will  have  advised 

77 


349] 


Words:  Inflection 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD 

Present  Tense 

vSingular 

Plural 

moneam,  may  I  advise 
moneas,  mayst  thou  advise 
moneat,  let  him  advise 

moneamus,  let  us  advise 
moneatis,  may  you  advise 
moneant,  let  them  advise 

Imperfect  Tense 

monerem,  /  should  advise 
moneres,  thou  wouldst  advise 
moneret,  he  would  advise 

moneremus,  we  should  advise 
moneretis,  you  would  advise 
monerent,  they  would  advise 

Perfect  Tense 

monuerim,  /  may  have  advised 
monuerls,  thou  mayst  have  advised 
monuerit,  he  may  have  advised 

monuerlmus,  xve  may  have  advised 
monueritis,  you  may  have  advised 
monuerint,  they  may  have  advised 

Pluperfect  Tense 

monuissem,  /  should  have  advised 
monuisses,  thou  iwuldst  have  advised 
monuisset,  he  would  have  advised 

monuissemus,  we  should  have  advised 
monuissetis,  you  would  have  advised 
monuissent,  they  would  have  advised 

IMPERATIVE   MOOD 

mone  or  moneto,  advise,  thou  shalt 

advise 
monetd,  he  shall  advise 

monete  or  monetote,   advise,  you 

shall  adviie 
monentd,  thev  shall  advise                    ! 

i 

! 
NOUNS  OF  THE  VERB 

INFINITIVE 

PARTICIPLE 

Pres.   monSre,  to  advise 
Perf.   monuisse,  to  have  advised 
Put.     moniturus  esse,  to  be  going  to 
advise 

Pres.   monSns,  advising 

Put.     moniturus,  going  to  advise 

GERUND 

SUPINE 

Gen.     tnonendi,  of  advising 
Dat.     monendo,  for  advising 
Ace.     monendum,  advising 
Abl.     monendo,  l>y  advising 

Ace.  *monitum,  to  advise,  not  used 
Aid.     raonitu,  in  advising 

78 


The  Verb:    Verbs  in  -ere 


[350 


350.  (795-) 


VERBS    IN    -ere 

THE   SECOND    CONJUGATION 

moneor,  am  advised 


PASSIVE     VOICE 

INDICATIVE  MOOD 

Present  Tense 

Singular 

Plural 

moneor,  /  am  advised 

monemur,  7ue  are  advised 

moneris  or  -re,  thou  art  advised 

monemini,  you  are  advised 

monetur,  he  is  advised 

monentur,  they  are  advised 

Imperfect  Tense 

monebar,  /  ivas  advised 

monebamur,  we  were  advised 

monebare  or  -ris,  thou  luert  advised 

monebamini,  you  were  advised 

monebatur,  he  was  advised 

monebantur,  they  were  advised 

Future  Tense 

monebor,  /  shall  be  advised 

monebimur,  we  shall  be  advised 

monebere  or  -ris,  thou  tuilt  be  advised 

monebimini,  you  will  be  advised 

monebitur,  he  will  be  advised 

monebuntur,  they  zvill  be  advised 

Perfect  Tense 

monitus  sum,  /  have  been,  or  xvas  ad- 

moniti sumus,  zve  have  been,  or  were 

vised 

advised 

monitus  es,  thou  hast  been,  or  wert 

moniti  estis,  you  have  been,  or  were 

advised 

advised 

monitus  est,  he  has  been,  or  was  ad- 

moniti sunt,  they  have  been,  or  were 

vised 

advised 

Pluperff 

CT  Tense 

monitus  eram,  /  had  been  advised 

moniti  eramus,  we  had  been  advised 

monitus  eras,  thou  hadst  been  advised 

moniti  eratis,  you  had  been  advised 

monitus  erat,  he  had  been  advised 

moniti  erant,  they  had  been  advised 

Future  Perfect  Tense 

monitus  ero,  /  shall  have  been  ad- 

moniti erimus,  we  shall  have  been 

vised 

advised 

monitus   eris,  thou   wilt  have   been 

moniti  eritis,  you  will  have  been  ad- 

advised 

vised 

monitus  erit,  he  zvill  have  been  ad- 

moniti erunt,  they  will  have  been  ad- 

vised 

vised 

1 

79 


35o] 


Words:  Inflection 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD 

Present  Tense 

Singular 

Plural 

monear,  may  I  be  advised 

moneare  or  -ris,  mayst  thou  be  advised 

moneatur,  let  him  be  advised 

moneamur,  may  we  be  advised 
moneamini,  may  you  be  advised 
moneantur,  let  them  be  advised 

Imperfect  Tense 

monerer,  /  should  be  advised 
monerere  or  -ris,  thou  wouldst  be  ad- 
vised 
moneretur,  he  would  be  advised 

moneremur,  we  should  be  advised 
moneremini,  you  would  be  advised 

monerentur,  they  would  be  advised 

Perfect  Tense 

monitus  sim,  /  may  have  been  ad- 
vised 

monitus  sis,  thou  mayst  have  been 
advised 

monitus  sit,  he  may  have  been  advised 

moniti  simus,  we  may  have  been  ad- 
vised 

moniti  sitis,  you  may  have  been  ad- 
vised 

moniti  sint,  they  may  have  been  advised 

Pluperfect  Tense 

monitus  essem,  /  should  have  been 

advised 
monitus  esses,  thou  ivouldst  have 

been  advised 
monitus  esset,  he  would  have  been 

advised 

moniti  essemus,  we  should  have  been 

advised 
moniti  essetis,  you  would  have  been 

advised 
moniti  essent,  they  would  have  been 

advised 

IMPERATIVE   MOOD                                                         | 

monere  or  monetor,  be  advised,  thou 

shall  be  advised 
monetor,  /le  shall  be  advised 

monemini,  be  advised 
monentor,  they  shall  be  advised 

NOUNS  OF  THE  VERB 

INFINITIVE 

GERUNDIVE 

Pres.    monSri»  to  be  advised 
Per/,  monitus   esse,   to  have   been 
advised 

monendus,  to  be  advised 

PERFECT    PARTICIPLE 

Put.  *monitum  iri,  to  be  goin^  to  be 
advised,  not  used 

monitus,  advised 

80 


The  Verb:    Verbs  in  -ire 


[35 


VERBS    IN   -ire 

THE   FOURTH   CONJUGATION 


351.  (796.)                        audia 

,  hear 

PRINCIPAL   PARTS 

Pres.  Indic.               Pres.  Infin.                 Perf.  Indic                 Perf.  Part. 

audio              audire               audivi              auditus 

ACTIVE     VOICE 

INDICATIVE    MOOD 

Prksknt  TEiNSE 

Singular 

Plural 

audid,  /  hear,  or  am  IieaHng 

audimus,  n^e  hear,  or  are  hearing 

audis,  thou  hearest,  or  art  hearing 

audltis,  you  hear,  or  are  hearing 

audit,  he  hears,  or  is  hearing                 \  audiunt,  they  hear,  or  are  hearing 

Imi'ekfkct  Tense 

audiebam,  /  7vas  hearing,  or  /  heard 

audiebamus,  7ve  -were  hearing,  or  7ve 

heard 

audiebas,  thou  wert  hearing,  or  thou 

audiebatis,  you  7vere  hearing,  or  you 

heardst 

heard 

audiebat,  he  zvas  hearing,  or  he  heard 

audiebant,  they  were  hearing,  or  they 

heard 

Future  Tense                                                    | 

audiam,  /  shall  hear 

audiemus,  7ve  shall  hear 

audies,  thou  wilt  hear 

audietis,  you  7vill  hear 

audiet,  fie  will  hear 

audient,  they  will  hear 

Perfect  Tense                                                   | 

audlvi,  /  have  heard,  or  /  heard 

audlvimus,    7ve    have    heard,    or   7ve 

heard 

audivisti,  thou  hast  heard,  or  thou 

audivistis,  you  have  heard,  or  you 

heardst 

heard 

audivit,  he  has  /leard,  or  he  heard 

audiverunt  or  -re,  they  have  heard. 

or  they  heard 

Pluperfect  Tense                                                I 

audiveram,  /  had  heard 

audiveramus,  7ve  had  heard 

audiveras,  thou  hadst  heard 

audiveratis,  yoti  had  heard 

audiverat,  lie  had  heard 

audiverant,  they  had  heard 

Future  Perfect  Tense                                              | 

audlverd,  /  shall  have  heard 

audiverimus,  7ve  shall  have  heard 

audiveris,  thou  rvilt  have  heard 

audiveritis,  you  7vill  have  heard 

}  audiverit,  he  7uill  have  heard 

1 

audlverint,  they  will  have  heard 

81 


35i] 


Words :  Inflection 


Singular 
audiam,  may  I  hear 
audias,  mayst  thou  hear 
audiat,  let  him  hear 


audirem,  /  should  hear 
audires,  thou  wouldst  hear 
audiret,  he  would  hear 


SUBJUNCTIVE   MOOD 

Present  Tknsk 

I  Plural 

audiamus,  let  us  hear 
I  audiatis,  may  you  hear 
I  audiant,  let  them  hear 

Imperfect  Tense 

audiremus,  ive  should  hear 
audiretis,  you  would  hear 
audirent,  they  would  hear 


Perfect  Tense 


audiverim,  /  may  have  heard 
audlveris,  thou  mayst  have  heard 
audiverit,  he  may  have  heard 


audiverimus,  we  may  have  heard 
audiveritis,  you  may  have  heard 
audiverint,  they  may  have  heard 


Pluperficct  Tense 


audivissem,  /  should  have  heard 
audivisses,  thou  wouldst  have  heard 
audivisset,  he  would  have  heard 


audivissemus,  we  should  have  heard 
audivissetis,  you  would  have  heard 
audlvissent,  they  would  have  heard 


IMPERATIVE   MOOD 


audi  or  audito,  hein\  thou  shalt  hear 
atidlto,  he  sJmll  hear 


audite  or  auditote,  hear^  you  shall 
hear 
\  audiuntd,  they  shall  hear 


INFINITIVE 
Pres.     audire,  to  hear 
Per/,     audivisse,  to  have  heard 
Put.      auditurus  esse,  to  be^oing  to 
hear 

GERUND 
Gen.      audiendi,  of  hearing 
Dat.      audiendo,  for  hearing 
Ace.       audiendum,  hearing 
Abl.       audiendo,  by  hearing 


NOUNS   OF  THE   VERB 

PARTICIPLE 
Pres.     audiens,  heating 


Put. 


SUPINE 


Ace.      auditum,  to  hear 
Abl.      auditu,  in  heating 


82 


The  Verb:    Verbs  in  -ire 


L352 


352.  (797-) 


VERBS    IN    -ire 

THE    FOURTH   CONJUGATION 

audior,  am  heard 


PASSIVE  VOICE 

1                                                             INDICATIVE   MOOD 

j                                                    Present  Tense 

I                               Singular 

Plural 

audior,  /  am  heard 

audimur,  we  are  heard 

audlris  or  -re,  thou  art  heard 

audimini,  you  are  heard 

auditur,  he  is  heard 

audiuntur,  they  are  heard 

Imperfect  Tense 

audiebar,  /  7vas  heard                          j  audiebamur,  lue  were  heard 

audiebare  or  -ris,  thotc  wert  heard         audiebamini,  you  were  heard 

audiebatur,  he  was  heard                         audiebantur,  they  were  heard 

Future  Tense 

audiar,  /  shall  be  heard 

audiemur,  we  shall  be  heard 

audiere  or  -ris,  thou  wilt  he  heard 

audiemini,  you  will  be  heard 

audietur,  he  will  be  heard 

audientur,  they  will  be  heard 

Perfect  Tense 

auditus    sum,  /  have   been,  or   was 

auditi  sumus,  we  have  been,  or  ivere 

heard 

heard 

auditus   es,  thou   hast  been,  or  wert 

auditi  estis,  you  have  been,  or  were 

heard 

heard 

auditus    est,   he    has    beeu,    or   was 

auditi  sunt,  they  have  been,  or  were 

heard 

heard 

Pluperfect  Tense 

auditus  eram,  /  had  been  heard           \  auditi  eramus,  tve  had  been  heard 

auditus  eras,  thou  hadst  been  heard 

auditi  eratis,  you  had  been  heard 

auditus  erat,  he  had  been  heard 

auditi  erant,  they  had  been  heard 

Future  Perfect  Tensk 

auditus  ero,  /  shall  have  been  heard 

auditi  erimus,   we  shall  have  been 

heard 

auditus    eris,   thou    wilt  have    been 

auditi    eritis,  you   will    have    beejt 

heard 

heard 

auditus  erit,  he  will  have  been  heard 

auditi   erunt,   they   will   have    been 

heard 

83 


352] 


Words :   Injiection 


SUBJUNCTIVE   MOOD 

Present  Tense 

Singular 
audiar,  may  I  be  heard 
audiare  or  -ris,  mayst  thou  be  heard 
audiatur,  Ut  him  be  heard 

Plural 
audiamur,  may  we  be  heard 
audiamini,  may  you  be  heard 
audiantur,  let  them  be  heard 

Imperfect  Tense 

audirer,  I  should  be  heard 

audirere  or -ris,  thou  wouldstbe  heard 

audiretur,  he  would  be  heard 

audiremur,  7ue  should  be  heard 
audiremini,  you  would  be  heard 
audirentur,  they  would  be  heard 

Perfect  Tense 

audltus  sim,  I  may  have  been  heard 
auditus    sis,  thou    mayst   have  been 

heard 
auditus  sit,  he  may  have  been  heard 

auditi  simus,  we  may  have  been  heard 
auditi  sitis,  you  may  have  been  heard 

auditi  sint,  they  may  have  been  heard 

Pluperfect  Tense 

auditus  essem,  /  should  have  been 

heard 
auditus  esses,  thou  zoouldst  have  been 

heard  . 
auditus  esset,  he   would  have  been 

heard 

auditi  essemus,  we  should  have  been 

heard 
auditi  essetis,  you  -ivould  have  been 

heard 
auditi  essent,  they  would  have  been 

heard 

IMPERATIVE   MOOD 

audire  or  auditor,  be  heard,  thou  shalt  \  audimini,  be  heard 

be  heard 
auditor,  he  shall  be  heard                          audiuntor,  they  shall  be  heard 

NOUNS   OF   THE   VERB 

INFINITIVE 

GERUNDIVE 

Pres.     audiri,  to  be  heard 

Ferf.    auditus   esse,    to   have   been 

heard 

audiendus,  to  be  heard 

PERFECT   PARTICIPLE 

Fut.      auditum  iri,  to  be  going  to  be 
heard 

auditus,  heard 

84 


The  Verb :  Deponents 


[353 


THE  DEPONENT  VERB 
353-  (79S.)  Deponents,  that  is,  verbs  with  passive  person  endings  and 
an  active  meaning  (315),  have  these  active  noun  forms  :  participles,  the 
future  infinitive,  the  gerund,  and  the  supines.  The  perfect  participle  is 
usually  active,  but  sometimes  passive.  The  following  is  a  synopsis  of 
deponents : 


PRINCIPAL   PARTS 

queror, 

complain,   queri 

,  questus 

miror,  wonder,    mirari,        miratus 
vereor,  fear,       vereri,        veritus 
partior,  share     partiri,       partitus 

i.-i 

II.  (i.)  -ari         (2.)  -eri 

INDICATIVE    MOOD 

(3-)  -5ri 

Pres. 

queror 

miror 

vereor 

partior 

Imp. 

querebar 

mirabar 

verebar 

partiebar 

Fut. 

querar 

mirabor 

verebor 

partiar 

Per/. 

questus  sum 

miratus  sum 

veritus  sum 

partitus  sum 

Plup. 

questus  eram 

miratus  eram 

veritus  eram 

partitus  eram 

F.  P. 

questus  ero 

miratus  ero 

veritus  ero 

partitus  ero 

SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD 

Pres. 

querar 

mirer 

verear 

partiar 

Ivip. 

quererer 

mirarer 

vererer 

partirer 

Per/. 

questus  sim 

miratus  sim 

veritus  sim 

partitus  sim 

Plup. 

questus      es- 
sem 

miratus  essem 

veritus  essem 

partitus     es- 
sem 

IMPERATIVE   MOOD 

querere 

mirare               |  verere 

partire 

PARTICIPLES 

Pres. 

querens 

mirans 

verens 

partiens 

Per/. 

questus 

miratus 

veritus 

partitus 

Fut. 

questiirus 

miraturus 

veritiirus 

partiturus 

INFINITIVE 

Pres. 

queri 

mirari                |  vereri 

partiri 

Per/. 

questus  esse 

miratus  esse     |  veritus  esse 

partitus  esse 

Fut. 

questiirus  es- 

miratiirus es-  1  veriturus  esse 

partitiirus  es- 

se 

se 

GERUND   AND    GERUNDIVE 

se 

Gen. 

querendi,  etc. 

mirandi,  etc.        verendi,  etc. 

partiendi,  etc. 

querendus 

mirandus             verendus 

SUPINE 

partiendus 

Ace. 

questum 

*miratum             *veritum 

*partitum 

Abl. 

*questu 

miratu                *veritu 

*partitu 

85 


54,  355] 


Words:  Injiecliofi 


354.  (801.)  A  few  verbs  are  deponent  in  the  present  system  only:  as, 
devortor,  turn  in,  perfect  devorti ;  revortor,  turn  back,  perfect  revorti, 
but  with  active  perfect  participle  revorsus.  Four  are  deponent  in  the 
perfect  system  only:  fido,  trust,  fidere,  fisus,  and  the  compounds,  con- 
fldo,  difTldo  ;  and  audeo,  dare.  Singer e^  ausus,  gSLudeo,  fee/ ^/atf,  gaudere, 
gavisus,  and  soleo,  am  used,  solere,  solitus. 

Most  imper^onals  in  -ere  have  both  an  active  and  a  deponent  form 
in  the  perfect  system :  see  359,  360. 


PERIPHRASTIC    FORMS 

355*  (802.)  The  future  active  participle  with  a  form  of  sum 
is  used  to  denote  an  intended  or  future  action:  as, 

recturus  sum,  /  am  going  to  rule,  intend  to  rule 


INDICATIVE   MOOD 

Singular 

Plural 

Pres. 

recturus  sum,  es,  est 

recturi  sumus,  estis,  sunt 

Imp. 

recturus  eram,  eras,  erat 

recturi  eramus,  eratis,  erant 

Fut. 

recturus  ero,  eris,  erit 

recturi  erimus,  eritis,  erunt 

Per/. 

recturus  fui,  fuisti,  fuit 

recturi  fuimus,  fuistis,  fuerunt 

Plup. 

recturus  fueram,  fueras,  fue- 

recturi   fueramus,   fueratis,   fue- 

rat 

rant 

SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD 

Pres. 

recturus  sim,  sis,  sit 

rectiiri  simus,  sitis,  sint 

Imp. 

recturus   essem,  esses,  as- 
set 

recturi  essemus,  essStis,  cssent 

Per/. 

recturus  fuerim,  fueris,  fue-. 
rit 

recturi  fuerimus,  fueritis,  fuerint    j 

Plup. 

recturus    fuissem,    fuisses. 

recturi    fuissemus,   fuissctis,  fu- 

fuisset 

issent 

INFINITIVE 

Pres. 

recturus  esse 

Per/ 

rScturus  fuisse 

86 


The  Verb:   Defective  Verbs         [356-358 


356.  (804.)  The  gerundive  with  a  form  of  sum  is  used  to 
denote  action  which  requires  to  be  done:  as, 

regendus  sum,  /  ain  to  be  ruled,  must  be  ruled 


INDICATIVE   MOOD 

Singular 

Plural 

Pres. 

regendus  sum,  es,  est 

regendi  sumus,  estis,  sunt 

Imp. 

regendus  eram,  eras,  erat 

regendi  eramus,  eratis,  erant 

Fut. 

regendus  ero,  eris,  erit 

regendi  erimus,  eritis,  erunt 

Per/. 

regendus  ful,  fuisti,  fuit 

regendi  fuimus,  fuistis,  fuerunt 

Plup. 

regendus  fueram,  fueras,  fue- 

regendi  fueramus,  fueratis,  fue- 

rat 

rant 

SUBJUNCTIVE   MOOD                                                   | 

Pres. 

regendus  sim,  sis,  sit 

regendi  simus,  sitis,  sint 

Imp. 

regendus  essem,   esses,  es- 
set 

regendi  essemus,  essetis,  essent 

Per/. 

regendus  fuerim,  fueris,  fue- 

regendi   fuerimus,   fueritis,    fue-  I 

rit 

rint                                                   ! 

Plup. 

regendus    fuissem,   fuisses. 

regendi  fuissemus,  fuissetis,  fu-  | 

fuisset 

issent 

INFINITIVE 

1 

Pres. 

regendus  esse 

Per/. 

regendus  fuisse 

DEFECTIVE    VERBS 


357.  (805.)  Some  verbs  have  only  a  few  forms:  as,  inquam,  quoth  I 
(331);  aio,  avouch  (345;.  See  also  z^Ao^give,  tell,  fari,  to  lift  up  ones 
voice,  have  or  ave  and  salve,  all  hail,  and  quaeso,  prithee,  in  the  dic- 
tionary. 

358.  (812.)  Some  verbs  have  only  the  perfect  system:  so 
particularly  coepi,  Jiave  begun,  began;  and  with  a  present 
meaning,  odi,  have  come  to  Jiate,  hate ;  and  memini,  have 
called  to  mind,  remember.  The  following  is  a  synopsis  of 
these  three  verbs: 

87 


359>  360] 


Words :    Injleclion 


INDICATIVE   MOOD 

Active 

Passive                    Active 

Active 

Per/. 

coepi 

coeptus  sum       |  odi 

1  memini 

Plup. 

coeperam 

coeptus  eram 

oderara 

memineram        • 

F.P. 

coepero 

coeptus  ero 

odero 

meminero 

SUBJUNCTIVE   MOOD 

Per/. 

coeperim 

coeptus  sim          oderim 

1  meminerim 

Plup. 

coepissem 

coeptus  essem   1  odissem 
IMPERATIVE  MOOD 

1  meminissem 

Per/ 

memento,   me-  i 

mentote 

INFINITIVE 

Per/ 

coepisse 

coeptus  esse      '  odisse 

PARTICIPLES 

1  meminisse 

Per/ 

coeptus 

1 

1  — 

Put. 

coepturus 

Aeiit-iic 

1 

1 

359.  (815.)  Impersonal  verbs  have  usually  only  the  third 
person  singular,  and  the  infinitive  present  and  perfect:  as, 

{a.)  pluit,  //  rains,  tonat,  //  tJntnders,  and  other  verbs  denoting  the 
operations  of  nature,  {h.)  Also  a  few  verbs  in  -ere  denoting  feeling:  as, 
miseret,  //  distresses,  miseritum  est ;  paenitet,  //  repents,  paenituit ;  piget, 
it griei'vs,  piguit  or  pigitum  est ;  pudet,  //  shames,  puduit  or  puditum  est; 
taedet,  //  is  a  bore,  taesum  est. 

360.  (816.)  Some  other  verbs,  less  correctly  called  impersonal,  with 
an  infinitive  or  a  sentence  as  subject,  are  likewise  defective:  as, 

libet,  /■/  suits,  libitum  est,  libuit ;  licet,  //  is  al/inved,  licuit  or  licitum 
est ;  oportet,  //  is  proper,  oportuit ;  re  fert  or  refert,  //  coticertis,  re  ferre 
or  referre,  re  tulit  or  retulit.  For  the  impersonal  use  of  the  third  f>er- 
son  singular  passive,  as  pugnatur,  there  is /ighting,  pugnandum  est,  there 
must  be  /ighting,  see  314. 


88 


The  Verb:  Present  Stem  [361-366 

FORMATION    OF    STEMS 


w 


VARIABLE   VOWEL 

361.  (834.)  The  final  vowel  of  a  tense  stem  is  said  to  be  variable 
hen  it  is  -o-  in  some  of  the  forms,  and  -u-,  -e-,  or  -i-  in  others. 


362.  (825.)  The  sign  for  the  variable  vowel  is  -oje-:  thus,  rego  e-, 
which  may»be  read  "rego-  or  rege-,"  represents  rego-  or  regu-,  rege-  or 
regi-,  as  seen  in  rego-r  or  regu-nt,  rege-re  or  regi-t. 


THE    PRESENT    SYSTEM 

363.  (828-853.)  From  the  present  stem  (310)  are  formed  the  present, 
imperfect,  and  future  indicative,  the  present  and  imperfect  subjunctive, 
and  the  imperative. 

VERBS   IN   -ere. 

364.  (829.)  The  present  stem  of  many  verbs  in  -ere  is 
formed  by  adding  a  variable  vowel  '°|e.,  which  appears  in  the 
first  person  singular  active  as  -6,  to  a  root  ending  in  a  con- 
sonant or  in  two  consonants:  as, 

Present  Stem  Verb  From  Theme 

rego|  e-  rego,  guide  r  e  g- 

verto|e.  verto, /urn  vert- 

Other  examples  are:  tego,  cover,  peto,  make  for ;  pendo,  hang;  died, 
say,  ndOy'/rus/,  scribo,  write ;  duco,  lead,  gigno,  beget  (gen-,  gn-),  has 
reduplication  (56). 

365.  (831.)  Some  roots  in  a  mute  have  a  nasal  before  the  mute  in 
the  present  stem:  as,  frango,  break  (frag-).  Other  examples  are: 
iungOf  join;  linquo,  leave,  pingd^  paint ;  {\inddy pour ;  rumpo,  break. 

366.  (832.)  The  present  stem  of  many  verbs  in  -ere  is 
formed   by  adding   a   suffix  ending  in   a   variable   vowel  ■°|e-, 

89 


367-37 0  Words:  Inflection 

which  appears  in  the  first  person  singular  active  as  -6,  to  a 

root:  thus,  -no,  -sco,  -to,  -id:  as, 

Present  Stem  Verb  From  Theme 

lino|e-  Viwb^  besmear  I  i- 

crescoje-  cx^scb^  grow  crc- 

pectoje-  pectOy  comb  pec- 

capio|e-  capio,  /a^e  cap- 

Dknominatives 

367.  (839.)  The  present  stem  of  denominatives#is  formed 
by  attaching  a  variable  vowel  -°je_,  to  a  theme  consisting  of  a 
noun  stem:  as, 

Uncontractei)  Present  Siem  Vkrh  From  Theme 

cenaofe-  ceno,  t/me  cena- 

fl6reo|e-  floreo,  blossom  flore- 

vestioje.  vestio,  dress  vesti- 

acuo|e-  acuo,  point  acu- 

368.  (840.)  In  most  of  the  forms,  the  final  vowel  of  the  theme  is  con- 
tracted with  the  variable  vowel :  as, 

laudo,  lauda-s,  lauda-mus,  lauda-tis  ;  mone-s,  mone-mus,  mone-tis ; 
audl-s,  audl-mus,  audl-tis  (44).  In  a  few  forms  no  contraction  occurs: 
as,  moneo,  audio,  andiu-nt,  audie-ntis,  etc.,  audie-ndus,  etc. 


THE  PERFECT  SYSTEM 

369.  (854-884.)  From  the  perfect  stem  (310)  are  formed  the  perfect, 
pluperfect,  and  future  perfect  indicative,  and  the  perfect  and  pluperfect 
subjunctive. 

370.  (854.)  There  are  two  kinds  of  perfect  stems:  Some  verbs  have 
as  perfect  stem  a  root,  generally  with  some  modification,  but  without  a 
suffix  (371-376).  Some  perfects  are  formed  with  a  sufllix,  -s-,  or  -v-,  or 
-a- (377-38 «). 

PERFECT  STEM    WITHOUT   A    SUFFIX 

371.  (858.)  Some  verbs  in  -ere  form  their  perfect  stem  by 
prefixing  to  the  root  its  initial  consonant  with  the  following 
vowel,  which,  if  a,  is  usually  represented  by  c;  this  is  called 

90 


The  Verb:  Perfect  Stem  \^37^~377 

the  Reduplicated  Perfect,  and  the  first  syllable  is  called  the 
Rediiplica  t  ion :  as, 


Perfect  Stem 

Verb 

From  Theme 

pu-pug- 

pungo,  punch 

pug- 

pe-pig- 

pang6,/a- 

pag- 

372.  (859.)  Four  verbs  with  vowel  roots  also  have  a  reduplicated  per- 
fect stem:  dbygn>c,  put,  dare,  dedi ;  bibo,  drink,  bibere,  bibi;  sto,  stand, 
stare,  steti,  and  sisto,  set,  sistere,  -stiti,  rarely  stitl.  Also  four  verbs  in 
-ere :  mordeo,  Mf,  momordi,  pendeo,  /uino-,  pependi,  spondeo,  promise, 
spopondi,  tended,  clip,  -totondi.  In  the  root  syllable  of  s^o^ondX^  prom- 
ised, steti,  stood,  stiti,  set,  and  the  old  scicidi,  cloi.>e,  an  s  is  dropped. 

373.  (860.)  In  compounds  the  reduplication  is  commonly  dropped  ; 
as,  cecidi,  fell,  compound  concidi,  tumbled  down.  Compounds  of  bibi, 
drank,  didici,  learned,  poposci,  asked,  stiti,  set,  steti,  stood,  and  dedi, 
gave,  put,  retain  the  reduplication  :  as,  restiti,  staid  back. 

374.  (862.)  Some  verbs  in  -ere  have  a  perfect  stem  consist- 
ing of  a  consonant  root  with  a  long  vowel:  as, 

Perfect  Stem  Verb  From  Theme 

ed-  edo,  eat  e  d- 

leg-  lego,  pick  up,  read  1  e  g- 

Three  verbs  in  -ere  also  have  this  form,  sedeo,  sit,  sedi,  strideo, 
grate,  stridi,  video,  see,  vidi ;  and  one  in  -ire,  venio,  come,  veni. 

375.  (865.)  Verbs  in  -uo,  -uere,  both  primitives  and  denominatives, 
have  usually  a  perfect  stem  in  short  u :  as,  luo,  pay,  lui ;  acu5,  sharpen, 
acui.     fluo,  fiow,  and  struo,  pile,  have  fiiixi  and  striixi. 

376.  (866.)  Some  verbs  in  -ere  from   roots  ending  in  two 

consonants  have  a  perfect  stem  consisting  of  the  root:  as, 

Perfect  Stem  Verb  From  Theme 

mand-  mando,  chew  m  a  n  d- 

pand-  pando,  opeti  p  a  n  d- 

PERFECT   STEM   IN  -S-,  OR   IN  -V-  OR  -U- 

377.  (867.)  Many  verbs  in  -ere  form  their  perfect  stem  by 
adding  the  suf^x  -s-  to  a  root,  which  generally  ends  in  a 
mute:  as, 

91 


378-3^3]  Words:  Inflection 

Perfect  Stem  Verb  From  Theme 

carp-s-  carpo,  pluck  c  a  r  p- 

sculp-s-  sculpo,  carve  sculp- 

ges-s-  gero,  bear  g  e  s- 

dlx-  dlco,  say  d  I  c- 

378.  (868.)  Some  verbs  in  -ere  also  have  a  perfect  in  -s-:  as,  algeo, 
am  cold,  alsi;  haereo,  stick,  haesi.  Also  some  in  -ire:  as,  sarcio,  patch, 
sarsi. 

379.  (869,  871.)  Some  verbs  in  -ere,  with  vowel  roots,  and  almost  all 
verbs  in  -are  or  -ire,  form  their  perfect  stem  by  adding  the  suffix  -v-  to 
a  theme  ending  in  a  long  vowel :  as, 

Perfect  Stem  Verb  P'rom  Theme 

cre-v-  crescd,  grow  c  r  e- 

lauda-v-  laudo,  praise  lauda- 

audi-v-  audio,  hear  audi- 

A  few  verbs  in  -ere  also  have  a  perfect  stem  in  -v- :  as,  fleo,  weep, 
flere,  fievi;  see  431-433. 

380.  (873.)  Many  verbs  in  -ere  fornn  their  perfect  stem  by 
adding  the  sufifix  -u-  to  a  consonant  root:  as, 

Pkrfect  Stem  Verb  From  Theme 

al-u-  alo,  nurture  al- 

gen-u-  gigno,  deget  g  e  n- 

381.  (874.)  Some  verbs  in  -are  also  have  a  perfect  stem  in  -u- :  as, 
crepo,  rattle,  crepare,  crepui;  and  many  in  -ere:  as.  moneo,  warn, 
monere,  monul;  also  four  in  -Ire:  as,  salio,  leap,  salire,  salui. 


SHORT  OR  OLD  FORMS 

382.  (846.)  The  second  person  singular  imperative  active  of  dico, 
duco,  and  facio,  is  usually  die,  due,  and  fac,  respectively,  though  the  full 
forms,  dice,  etc.,  are  also  used. 

383.  (886.)  Shorter  forms  in  the  perfect  indicative,  the  pluperfect  sub- 
junctive, and  the  infinitive,  most  of  them  from  perfects  in  -s-  (377). 
occur  chiefly  in  verse:  thus. 

Perfect  indicative,  second  person  singular,  common  :  as,  dixti ;  plural, 
rare:  as,  accestis.  Pluperfect  subjunctive  singular,  not  very  common: 
as.  exstinxem,  vixet. 

92 


The  Verb:  Nouns  of  the  Verb    [384-391 

384.  (889.)  Shortened  forms  from  perfect  stems  formed  by  the  suffix 
-V-  (43S)  are  very  common  in  all  periods. 

385.  (890.)  In  tenses  formed  from  perfect  stems  in  -av-,  -ev-,  and 
-OV-,  V  is  often  dropped  before  -is-,  -er-,  or  -er-,  and  the  vowels  thus 
brought  together  are  contracted  :  as, 

laudavisti,  laudasti;  laudaverunt,  laudarunt ;  laudaveram,  laudaram, 
etc.;  laudavissem,  laudassem,  etc.;  -plevistis,  -plestis  ;  pleverim, -plerim, 
etc.;  novisti,  nosti ;  novistis,  nostis ;  noverunt,  norunt ;  noverim,  norim, 
etc. 

386.  (893.)  In  tenses  formed  from  perfect  stems  in  -iv-,  v  is  often 
dropped  before  -is-,  -er-,  or-er-;  but  contraction  is  common  only  in  the 
forms  which  have  -is-:  as, 

audivisti,  audlsti;  audivistis,  audistis ;  audiverunt,  audierunt;  audi- 
verim,  audierim,  etc.;  audiveram,  audieram,  etc.;  audivisse,  audlsse. 


NOUNS  OF   THE   VERB 

INFINITIVE 

387.  (894.)  The  active  infinitive  has  the  ending  -re  in  the 
present,  and  -isse  in  the  perfect :  as, 

regere,  capere  ;  laudare,  monere,  audlre.  rexisse  ;  laudavisse,  monu- 
isse,  audivisse. 

388.  (896.)  The  present  infinitive  passive  of  verbs  in  -ere 
has  the  ending  -1;  that  of  other  verbs  has  -ri:  as, 

regi,  cap! ;  laudari,  moneri,  audiri. 

389.  (897.)  A  longer  form  in  -ier  for  -i,  and  -rier  for  -ri,  occurs  some- 
times in  poetry:  as,  dicier,  to  be  said ;  dominarier,  to  be  lord  paramount. 

390.  (898.)  The  place  of  the  perfect  passive,  future  active,  and  future 
passive  infinitive  is  supplied  by  a  circumlocution,  as  seen  in  the  para- 
digms. 

GERUNDIVE  AND    GERUND 

391.  (899.)  The  gerundive  stem  is  formed  by  adding  -ndo-, 
nominative  -ndus,  -nda,  -ndum,  to  the  present  stem  :  as, 

regendus,  capiendus ;  laudandus,  monendus,  audiendus.  Verbs  in 
-ere  and  -ire  often  have  -undus,  when  not  preceded  by  u  or  v:  as,  capi- 
undus ;  eo,  go,  always  has  eundum,  and  orior,  rise,  oriundus. 

93 


392-39^]  Words:  Inflection 


SUPINE 

392.  (900.)  The  supine  stem  is  formed  by  the  suffix  -tu-, 
which  is  often  changed  to  -su-  (4CX)). 

This  suffix  is  attached  to  a  root  or  to  a  form  of  the  present  stem:  as, 
nuntiatum,  to  report,  nuntiatu,  in  reporting,  stem  nuntiatu-.  Many  of 
the  commonest  verbs  have  no  supine:  as,  sum,  eo,  fero;  rego,  emo, 
tego ;  amo,  deled,  doceo,  etc.,  etc. 

PRESENT   PARTICIPLE 

393.  (901.)  The  present  participle  stem  is  formed  by  adding 
-nt-,  or  -nti-,  nominative  -ns,  to  the  present  stem:  as, 

regens,  capiens  ;  laudans,  monens,  audiens. 

FUTURE   PARTICIPLE 

394.  (904.)  The  future  participle  suffix  is  -turo-,  nomina- 
tive -turus,  -tura,  -turum,  which  is  often  changed  to  -suro-, 
nominative  -surus,  -sura,  -surum  (400). 

This  suffix  is  added  to  a  verb  stem  after  the  manner  of  the  perfect 
participle  (396):  as,  x^ztxix\x%  going  to  guide ;  laudaturus,  ^^/>i^  to  praise. 

395.  (905.)  Some  future  participles  have  a  different  formation  from 
that  of  the  perfect  participle:  as,  mortuus,  dead,  moriturus ;  see  also  in 
the  dictionary  arguo,  fruor,  orior,  ruo,  seed.  And  some  verbs  have  two 
forms  of  the  future  participle :  as,  agnosco,  ignosco,  haurio,  iuvo,  pario. 

PERFECT   PARTICIPLE 

396.  (906.)  The  perfect  participle  suffix  is  -to-,  nominative 
-tus,  -ta,  -turn,  which  is  often  changed  to  -so-,  nominative 
-sus,  -sa,  -sum  (400). 

397.  (908.)  The  perfect  participle  is  formed  in  one  of  two 
separate  ways: 

398.  (909.)  From  a  verb  stem  consisting  of  a  root;  in  this  way  the 
participles  of  most  verbs  in  -ere  and  -Sre  are  formed :  as, 

gestus,  carried,  aptus,  fit,  solutus,  loosed,  iunctus,  joined,  iparsus, 
sprinkled;  doctus,  taught* 

94 


The  Verb :  List  of  Ve^^bs  [399-404 

399.  (910.)  In  some  consonant  root  participles  of  verbs  in  -ere,  -are, 
or -ere,  which  have  the  suffix  -u-  in  the  perfect  stem  (380),  the  -to-  is 
preceded  by  a  short  i:  as,  genitus,  born;  domitus,  tamed;  monitus, 
warned.     One  participle  has  -tuo- :  mortuus,  dead. 

400.  (912.)  With  some  roots  in  -d-  or  -t-,  in  -1-,  -m-,  or  -r-,  and  a  few 
others, -to- becomes -so-:  as,  fossus,  ^-/^^^ ;  ^yxXsws^ pushed ;  oftwos'sone 
is  often  dropped  :  as,  fisus,  trusting ,  versus,  turned. 

401.  (913.)  From  a  verb  stem  in  long  a  or  in  long  i;  in  this  way  par- 
ticiples are  regularly  formed  from  denominatives  in  -are  or  -ire  respec- 
tively: as, 

laudatus,  praised;  audltus,  heard. 


LIST   OF    IMPORTANT   VERBS 

ARRANGKD   ACCORDING    TO    THP:    PRINCIPAL    PARTS 

402.  (920.)  The  principal  parts  of  root  verbs  and  of  verbs 
in  -ere  are  formed  in  a  variety  of  ways  and  are  best  learned 
separately  for  every  verb  (404-418). 

403.  (921.)  The  principal  parts  of  verbs  in  -are,  -ere,  and 
-ire,  are  usually  formed  as  follows: 

X^lVl^o.,  praise  laudare  laudavi  laudatus 

moneo,  advise  monere  monul  monitus 

audio,  hear  audire  audlvi  auditus 

For  other  formations,  see  421-450. 


I,     Primitive  Verbs 
(A.)  ROOT  VERBS 
404.  (922.)  Root  verbs  have  their  principal  parts  as  follows: 


sum,  am 
pos-sum  can 
do,  give,  put 
bibo,  dri7ik 

esse 
pos-se 
dare 
bibere 

fui 

potuI 
dedi 
bibi 

datus 
potus 

sero,  sow 

serere 

sevi 

satus 

Compounds 

have  i 

i  for  a  in 

the  perfect  participle: 

as,  con-situs. 

95 

405,  4o6] 


Words:  Inflection 


sisto,  set  sistere 

eo,  go  ire 

edo,  eat  esse 

void,  will,  wish,  want  velle 

nolo,  wont  nolle 

malo,  like  better  malle 

fero,  carry  ferre 


-stiti,  rarely  stiti 

il,  very  rarely  ivi 

edl 

volui 

nolui 

malui 

(tull) 


status 
itum,  -itus 
esus 


(latus) 


(cantatus) 
tentus 

punctus 
tactus 


(B.)  VERBS  IN  -ere 
(A.)  PERFECT  STEM  WITHOUT  A   SUFFIX 

405.  (923-928.)  The  following  verbs  in  -ere  have  a  redupli- 
cated perfect  stem  (371),  and  the  perfect  participle,  when  used, 
in  -tus: 

cano,  make  music  canere  cecini 

tendo,  stretch  tendere  tetendi 

Compounds  have  -tendi  (373)  an^d  -tentus. 
pungo,  punch  pungere  pupugi 

tango,  touch  tangere  tctigi 

Compounds  have  i  for  a  in  the  present  system:  as,  con-tingo,  con- 
tingere,  con-tigi  (373).  con-tactus. 
tollo,  take  off  tollere  (sus-tuli)  (sub- latus) 

discd,  learn  discere  didici  

posed,  demand  poscere  poposci  

parid,  bring  forth  parere  peperi  partus 

406.  (929-932.)  The  following  verbs  in  -ere  have  a  redupli- 
cated perfect  stem  (371),  and  the  perfect  participle,  when 
used,  in  -sus  (400). 

cad6,/rt//  cadcre  cecidi  -casus 

Compounds  have  i  for  a  in  the  present  system :  as,  oc-cido,  oc-cidere, 

oc-cidi  (373),  oc-casus. 

caedo,/^//,  cut  caedere  cecidi  caesus 

Compounds  have  i  for  ae:  as  ac-cido,  ac-cidere,  ac-cldi  (373).  ac-cisus. 

pared,  spare  parcere  peperci  

pendo,  weigh,  pay  pendere  pependi  pcnsus 

tundo,  pound  tundcre  tutudi  not  used  tunsus 

Compounds  have  the  perfect  -tudi  (373).  and  the  participle  commonly 

-tusus. 

96 


The  Verb:  List  of  Verbs  [407-408 

curro,  run  currere  cucurri  cursum 

For  perfect  of  compounds,  see  373. 
fallo,  cheat  fallere  fefelll  falsus 

Compound  re-fello,  re-fellere,  re-felli  (373), • 

pello,  push  pellere  pepull  pulsus 

Compounds  usually  have  -pull  (373). 

407'  (933-935-)  The  following  verbs  in  -ere  have  lost  the 

reduplication  : 

finds,  split  apart  findere  -fidi,  rarely  fidi         fissus 

scindo,  rend  scindere  -scidi,  rarely  scidi   scissus 

per-cello,  knock  down         per-cellere      per-culi  per-culsus 

408.  (936-940»)  The  following  verbs  in  -ere  have  a  perfect 
stem  consisting  of  a  consonant  root  with  a  long  vowel  (374), 
and  the  perfect  participle,  when  used,  in  -tus: 
ago,  drive  agere  egl  actus 

Compounds  have  i  for  a  in  the  present  system  :  as,  ab-igo,  ab-igere, 
ab-egi,  ab-actus ;  but  per-ago  retains  a.     cogo  is  contracted:  cogo,  co- 
gere,  co-egl,  co-actus. 
emo,  take,  buy  emere  emi  emptus 

,  strike  ici  ictus 

leg6,//^>^  up,  read  legere  legi  lectus 

Compounds  with  ad,  inter,  nee-,  per,  prae,  and  re-,  have  -lego  in  the 
present  system,  others  -ligo.     For  dl-ligo,  intel-lego,  neg-lego,  see  412. 
frango,  smash  frangere  fregi  fractus 

Compounds  have  i  for  a  in  the  present  system:  as,  con-fringo,  con- 
fringere,  con-fregi,  con-fractus. 

linquo,  leave  linquere  liqul  -llctus 

rumpo,  burst  rumpere  riipi  ruptus 

vinco,  conquer  vincere  vici  victus 

pavesco,  get  afraid  pavescere       ex-pavl  

capid,  take  capere  cepi  captus 

Compounds  have  i  for  a  in  the  present  system  and  e  in  the  perfect 
participle:  as,  in-cipio,  in-cipere,  in-cepi,  in-ceptus. 
facio,  make  facere  feci  factus 

Compounds  have  i  for  a  in  the  present  system  and  e  in  the  perfect 
participle :  as,  ef-ficio,  ef-ficere,  ef-fecl,  ef-fectus. 
G  97 


409-411] 


JVords :  luflection 


fugio,  run  away  fugere  fugi  

iacio,  throw  iacere  ieci  iactus 

Compounds  have  -icio,  -icere,  -ieci,  -iectus :  as,  e-icio,  e-icere,  e-ieci, 
e-iectus. 

409.  (941-946.)  The  following  verbs  in  -ere  have  a  perfect 
stem  consisting  of  a  consonant  root  with  a  long  vowel  (374), 
and  the  perfect  participle,  when  used,  in  -sus  (400) : 


cudd,  hammer 

cudere 

-cudi 

-cusus 

sido,  settle 

sidere 

sidi,  -sidi,  -sedi 

-sessus 

fundo,  pour 
viso,  go  to  see 
fodio,  dig 

fundere 

visere 

fodere 

fudi 
visi 
fodi 

fusus 

fossus 

acutus  adjective 
argutus  rare 

im-butus 
ind-utus 
-lutus,  washed 
metutus  once 


410.  (947-948.)  The  following  verbs  in  -ere  have  the  per- 
fect stem  in  -u-  or  in  -v-  (375),  and  the  perfect  participle,  when 
used,  in  -tus: 

acuo,  sharpeti  acuere  acul 

arguo,  make  clear  arguere  argul 

con-gruo,  agree  con-gruere  con-grui 

im-bu6,  give  a  smack  of     im-buere  im-bui 

ind-u6,  don  ind-uere  ind-ui 

luo,  pay,  atone  for  lucre  lui 

metuo,  fear  metuere  metui 

-nuo,  7tod  -nuere  -nui 

ruo,  tumble  down  ruere  rui 

so-lv6,  loose  so-lvere  so-lvl 

spuo,  spit  spuere  -spui  

statuo,  set  statuere  statu!  statutus 

Compounds  have  i  for  a  throughout :  as,  con-stitud,  con-stituere,  etc, 

volvo,  roll  volvere  volvi  volutus 

9XL0^sew  suere  -sui  sutus 

tribud,  assign  tribuere  tribui  tributus 

411.  (949-951.)  The  following  verbs  in  -ere  have  a  perfect 
stem  consisting  of  a  root  ending  in  two  consonants  (376),  and 
the  perfect  participle  in  -sus  (400): 


-rutus 
so-lutus 


-cendo,  light 
-fendo,  hit 


-cendere 
-fcndere 


-cendi 

-fendi 


-census 
-finsus 


98 


The  Verb:  List  of  Verbs 


w 


pando,  open  pandere  pandi  passus,  pansus 

pre-hendo,  seize  pre-hendere   pre-hendl  pre-hensus 

Often  prendo,  prendere,  prendi,  prensus. 

scando,  climb  scandere         -scendi  -scensus 

Compounds  have  e  for  a  throughout :  as,  de-scendo,  de-scendere,  etc. 

verro,  sweep  verrere  -verri  versus 

verto,  turn  vertere  verti  versus 

vello,  tear  vellere  velli  vulsus 

(B.)     PERFECT   STEiM    IN  -s-,  OR   IN  -v-  OR  -u- 
PERFECT    STEM    IN  -S- 

412.  (952-956.)  The  following  verbs  in  -ere  have  the  per- 
fect stem  in  -s-  (377),  and  the  perfect  participle,  when  used, 
in  -tus: 


carpo,  nibble,  pluck 

carpere 

carpsi 

carptus 

como,  put  tip 

comere 

compsi 

comptus 

CO  quo,  cook 

coquere 

c5xi 

coctus 

demo,  take  away 

demere 

dempsi 

demptus 

dico,  say 

dicere 

dixi 

dictus 

dl-lig5,  esteem 

di-ligere 

di-lexi 

di-lectus 

duco,  lead 

ducere 

diixi 

ductus 

-fligo,  smash 

-fligere 

-flixi 

-flictus 

gero,  carry 

gerere 

gessi 

gestus 

int el-lego,  understand 

intel-legere 

intel-lexi 

intel-lectus 

neg-lego,  disregard 

neg-legere 

neg-lexi 

neg-lectus 

nub5,  veil,  marry  {a  mail) 

nubere 

nupsi 

nupta 

promo,  take  out 

promere 

prompsi 

promptus 

x^^by  guide,  rule 

regere 

rexi 

rectus 

repo,  creep 

repere 

repsi 

scrlbo,  write 

scribere 

scripsi 

scriptus 

sculpo,  carve 

sculpere 

sculpsi 

sculptus 

struo,  buildup 

struere 

struxi 

striictus 

sumo,  take  up 

siimere 

sumpsi 

siimptus 

tego,  cover 

tegere 

texi 

tectus 

traho,  drag 

trahere 

traxi 

tractus 

uro,  burn 

urere 

ussi 

iistus 

veho,  cart 

vehere 

vexi 

vectus 

vivo   live 

Vive  re 
cingere 

vixi 
cinxi 

cingo,  gird 

cinctus 

99 


413] 


Words:  Inflection 


fingo,  mould 

fingere 

finxl 

fictus 

iungo,  jo/n 

iungere 

iunxi 

iunctus 

pingo,  paint 

pingere 

pinxi 

pictus 

plango,  beat 

plangere 

planxi 

planctus 

stinguo,  poke,  poke  out 

stinguere 

-stinxi 

-stinctus 

stringo,  peel,  graze 

stringere 

strinxi 

strictus 

tingo,  wet 

tingere 

tinxi 

tinctus 

unguo,  anoint 

unguere 

unxi 

unctus 

temno,  scorti 

temnere 

(con-tempsi) 

(con-temptus; 

in-licio,  inveigle 

in-licere 

in-lexl 

in-lectus 

pel-licio,  lead  astray 

pel-licere 

pel-lexi 

pel-lectus 

-spicio,  spy 

-spicere 

-spexi 

-spectus 

413.  (957-961.)  The  following  verbs  in  -ere  have  the  per- 
fect stem  in  -s-  (377),  and  the  perfect  participle,  when  used, 
in  -sus  (400) : 


cedo,  move  along 

cedere 

cessi 

cessus 

claudo,  shut 

claudere 

clausl 

clausus 

Compounds  have  u  for  au  throughout. 

di-vido,  separate 

di-videre 

di-visi 

dl-vlsus 

figo.  pif^ 

flgere 

fixi 

fixus,  twice  fictus 

flud,  flow 

fluere 

fluxi 

fluxus  adjective 

laedo,  hurt 

laedere 

laesi 

laesus 

Compounds  have  i 

for 

ae  throughout:  as,  in-lidd, 

in-lldere,  etc. 

ludo,  play 

ludere 

lusi 

lusus 

mitto,  send 

mittere 

misi 

missus 

mergo,  dip,  duck 

mergere 

mersi 

mersus 

plaudo,  clap 

plaudere 

plausi 

plausus 

premo,  squeeze 

premere 

press! 

pressus 

Compounds  have  i  for  e  in  the  present  system  :  as,  com-primo,  etc. 
tdL^b,  scrape  radere  rasi  rasus 

spargo,  scatter  spargere         sparsi  sparsus 

Compounds  usually  have  e  for  a  throughout :  as,  con-spergo,  etc. 
tx^^b^shorue  trudere  trusi  trusus 

vado,^;^^^  vadere  -vasi  -vasus 

flecto,  turn  flectere  flexi  flexus 

necto,  bind  together  nectere  nexi,  nexul       nexus 

quatio,  shake  quatere  -cussi  quassus 

Compounds  have  u  for  a :  as,  in-cutio,  in-cutere,  in-cussi,  in-cussus. 

100 


The  Verb:  List  of  Verbs  [414,415 


PERFECT   STEM   IN  -v- 


414.  (962-966.)  The  following  verbs  in  -ere  have  the  per- 
fect stem  in  -v-,  preceded  by  a  long  vowel  of  the  root  (379), 
and  the  perfect  participle,  when  used,  in  -tus : 


tero,  rub 

terere 

trivi 

tritus 

cerno,  sift,  separate,  see 

cernere 

crevi, 

decided 

certus,  -cretus 

lino,  besmear 

linere 

levl,  rarely 

livi  litus 

sino,  leave,  let 

sinere 

sivi,  -sii 

situs 

spernd,  spurn 

spernere 

sprevi 

spretus 

sterno,  strew 

sternere 

stravi 

stratus 

cresco,  grow 

crescere 

crevi 

cretus 

nosco,  get  to  k7iow 

noscere 

novl 

notus  adjective 

Compounds  :  i-gn6sc5,  i-gn5vi,  i-gnotum ;  a-gnosco,  a-gnovi,  a-gni- 
tus ;  c6-gn6sco,  co-gn5vi,  c5-gnitus. 

pasco,  feed  pascere  pavi  pastus 


scisco,  enact 


scivi. 


scitus 


415.  (966-970.)  The  following  verbs  in  -ere  have  the  per- 
fect stem  in  -v-,  preceded  by  the  long  vowel  of  a  presumed 
denominative  stem,  and  the  perfect  participle,  when  used,  in 
-tus: 

petd,  aim  at  petere  petivi,  petii       petltus 

quaero,  inquire  quaerere  quaeslvi  quaesitus 

Compounds  usually  have  i  for  ae  throughout :  as,  con-quiro,  con- 
quirere,  etc. 

ad-olesco,  grow  up  ad-olescere     ad-olevi  ad-ultus 

ohs-olesco,  get  wont  out     obs-olescere  obs-olevi  obs-oletus  adj. 

quiescOf  get  still  quiescere        quievi  quietus  adjective 

suesc5,  get  used  suescere  suevi  suetus 

cupio,  want  cupere  cuplvi  cupitus 

sapio,  have  a  si7iack  sapere  saplvl  

ar-cess6,  send  for  ar-cessere       ar-cessivi  ar-cessitus 

Sometimes  ac-cers6,  etc. 

capesso,  undertake  capessere       capessivi 

\z.zhssb^  provoke  lacessere        lacessivi  lacessitus 


lOI 


4i6] 


Words:  l7i flection 


PERFECT  STEM   IN  -U- 

416.  (971-976.)  The  following  verbs  in  -ere  have  the  per- 
fect stem  in  -u-  (380),  and  the  perfect  participle,  when  used, 
in  -tus;  in  some  participles  -tus  is  preceded  by  a  short  i,  thus, 
-itus  (399) : 

aid,  bri7ig  up  alere  alui  altus,  later  alitus 

C0I6,  ////,  stay  7-oimd,  court  colere  colui  cultus 

con-sulo,  consult  con-sulere      con-sului  con-sultus 

fremo,  growl  fremere  fremui  

^emo,  groan  geraere  gemui  

mold,  grind  molere  molui  molitus 

^bnb^  place  ponere  po-sui  po-situs 

sero,  string  serere  -serul  sertus 

strepo,  make  a  racket  strepere  strepui  

tex5,  weave  texere  texul  textus 

tremo,  quake  tremere  tremui  

vomo,  throw  up  vomere  vomui  

glgno,  beget 
ac-cumbo,  lie  by 


gignere 
ac-cumbere 


genui 
ac-cubui 


genitus 
ac-cubitus 

So  also  in-cumbo  ;  dis-cumbo  has  dis-cubui,  dis-cubitum.    Compounds 

with  de,  ob,  pro,  re-,  and  sub,  have  -cubui, . 

e-licio,  coax  out  e-licere  e-licui  e-licitus 

rapid,  seise  rapere  rapui  raptus 

Compounds  have  i  for  a  in  the  present  and  perfect  systems,  and  e  in 
the  perfect  participle  :  as,  e-ripio,  e-ripere,  e-ripui,  e-reptus. 
arescd,  dry  up 
calesco,  get  warm 
crebresco,  get  common 
duresco,  get  hard 
fervesco,  boil  up 
floresco,  blossom  out 
horresco,  bristle  up 
maturesco,  ripen 
ob-mutesc6,  get  still 
senesco,  groiu  old 
tepesco,  get  lukewarm 
-tiraescd,  get  scared 


arescere 

-arui 

calescere 

-calui 

crebrescere 

-crebrui 

durescere 

durui 

fervescere 

-ferbui,  -fervi 

florescere 

-florui 

horrescere 

-horrui 

maturescere 

maturul 

ob-mutescere  ob-mutui 

senescere 

-senui 

tcpescere 

-tepui 

-timescerc 

-timui 

The  Verb:  List  of  Verbs  [417-420 


DEPONENTS    IN   -1 

417.  (977-981.)  The  following  deponents  in  -i  have  the  per- 
fect participle  in  -tus,  except  morior,  which  has  -tuus: 

fruor,  ettjoy  frui  fructus 

loquor,  speak  loqui  locutus 

queror,  complain  querl  questus 

sequor,  folloiv  sequi  secutus 

fungor,  get  quit  fungi  functus 

aplscor,  lay  hold  of  apisci  aptus 

Compounds  have  i  and  e  for  a:  as,  ad-iplscor,  ad-iplsci,  ad-eptus. 

com-miniscor,  devise  com-minisci  com-mentus 

nanclscor,  jo^^/  nanclsci  nactus,  nanctus 

nascor,  am  bor7i  nasci  natus 

ob-liviscor,  forget  ob-livisci  ob-litus 

paclscor,  bargain  pacisci  pactus 

Compounds:  de-peciscor,  de-pecisci,  de-pectus ;  com-pectus. 

pro-ficiscor,  start  on  pro-ficisci  pro-fectus 

ulciscor,  avenge  ulcisci  ultus 

morior,  die  mori  mortuus 

orior,  rise  oriri  ortus 

potior,  master  potiri  potitus 

418.  (982-986.)  The  following  deponents  in  -i  have  the  per- 
fect participle  in  -sus  (400) : 

labor,  tumble  dawn  labi  lapsus 

nitor,  rest  oft  niti  nisus,  nixus 

utor,  use  uti  usus 

am-plector,  hug  round  am-plecti  am-plexus 

gradior,  step  gradi  gressus 

patior,  suffer  pati  passus 

Compounds  of  these  two  verbs  have  e  for  a :  as,  ad-gredior,  per- 
petior,  per-pessus. 

II.     Denominative  Verbs 

419.  (987.)  Most  verbs   in   -are,  -ere,  and  -ire  (or  in  -an, 
-eri,  and  -in)  are  denominatives. 

420.  (988.)    Some    primitives  from  vowel   roots   have    the 

103 


421-424]  Words:  Inflection 

form  of  denominatives  in  the  present  system,  or  throughout ; 
and  some  verbs  with  a  denominative  present  system  have  the 
perfect  and  perfect  participle  formed  directly  from  a  root. 

(i.)    VERBS  IN  -are 
(A.)     PERFECT   STEM   WITHOUT   A   SUFFIX 

421.  (989.)  The  following  verb  in  -are  has  a  reduplicated 
perfect  stem  (372): 

sto,  stand  stare  steti  

422.  (990.)  The  following  verbs  in  -are  have  a  perfect  stem 
consisting  of  a  root  which  ends  in  -v-  and  has  a  long  vowel, 
and  the  perfect  participle  in  -tus: 

iuvo,  help  iuvare  iuvi  iutus  once 

lavo,  bathe  lavare  lavi  lautus 

Forms  in  -ere  are  very  common  in  the  present  tense. 

(B.)    PERFECT   STEM   IN   -v-  OR  -u- 
PERFECT   STEM   IN  -V- 

423.  (992.)  Most  verbs  in  -are  have  the  perfect  stem  in  -v- 
(379),  and  the  perfect  participle  in  -tus,  both  preceded  by  a 
form  of  the  present  stem  in  long  -a-:  as, 

\2iVi6.b^  praise  laudare  laudavi  laudatus 

libero, /r^<?  liberare  liberavi  liberatus 

nomino,  name  nominare  nominavi  nominatus 

spero,  hope  sperare  speravi  spcratus 

PERFECT  STEM   IN  -U- 

424.  (993.)  The  following  verbs  in  -are  have  the  perfect 
stem  in  -u-  (381),  and  the  perfect  participle,  when  used,  in 
-tus;  in  some  participles,  -tus  is  preceded  by  a  short  i,  thus, 
-itus  (399): 

crepd,  rattle  crepare  crcpui  (in-crepitus) 

cubo,  lie  cubare  cubui  

domo,  tame  domare  domui  domitus 

frico,  rub  down  fricare  fricui  f rictus 

104 


The  Verb:  List  of  Verbs  [425-428 


mico,  qinver 
-^\\tQ,fold 
seco,  cut 
send,  sound 
ton5,  thunder 
veto,  forbid 

micare 

-plicare 

secare 

sonare 

tonare 

vetare 

micui 

-plicui 

secui 

sonui 

tonui 

vetui 

-plicitus 
sectus 

(at-tonitus) 
vetitus 

DEPONENTS  IN  -ari 

425.  (994.)  There  are  many  deponents  in  -an,  with  the  per- 
fect participle  in  -atus:  as, 

hortor,  exhort  hortari  hortatus 

(2.)    VERBS   IN   -ere 

(A.)     PERFECT  STEM    WITHOUT  A   SUFFIX 

426.  (995.)  The  following  verbs  in  -ere  have  a  reduplicated 
perfect  stem  (372),  and  the  perfect  participle,  when   used,  in 
-sus  (400): 
mordeo,  bite 
pendeo,  a77t  hung 
spondeo,  covenant 
tondeo,  shear 


mordere 
pendere 
spondere 
tondere 


momordi 
pependi 
spopondi 
-totondi, 


sponsus 
•tondi    tonsus 


427.  (996.)  The  following  verbs  in  -ere  have  a  perfect  stem 
consisting  of  a  root  which  ends  in  -v-  and  has  a  long  vowel, 
and  the  perfect  participle,  when  used,  in  -tus: 

caveo,  look  out  cavere  cavi  cautus 

fave5,  am  friendly  favere  favi  

foveo,  warm,  cherish  fovere  fovi  fdtus 

moved,  move  movere  movi  motus 

voveo,  vow  vovere  v5vi  vdtus 

428.  (997.)  Three  verbs  in  -ere  have  a  perfect  stem  con- 
sisting of  a  consonant  root  with  a  long  vowel,  and  the  perfect 
participle  in  -sus  (400) : 

seded,  sit  sedere  sedi  -sessus 

Compounds  have  i  for  e  in  the  present  system  :  as,  ob-sideo,  etc. 

strideo,  ^r«/^  stridere  stridi  

video,  see  videre  vidi  visus 

105 


429-433] 


Words:  Ivflectio7i 


(B.)     PERFECT   STEM    IN   -s-,  OR    IN   -v-   OR   -u- 
PERFECT   STEM   IN  -S- 

429.  (999.)  The  following  verbs  in  -ere  have  the  perfect  stem 
in  -s-  (378),  and  the  perfect  participle,  when  used,  in  -tus: 
augeo,  ijicrease                     augere             auxi                    auctus 
in-dulgeo,  am  kind  in-dulgere       in-dulsi  

luceo,  beam  lucere  luxi  

torqueo,  twist  torquere  torsi  tortus 

430.  (1000.)  The  following  verbs  in  -ere  have  the  perfect 

stem  in  -s-  (378),  and  the  perfect  participle,  when  used,  in 

-sus  (400) : 

alged,  feel  cold 
ardeo,  blaze 
fulgeo,  fiash 
haereo,  stick 
iubeo,  order 
maneo,  stay, 
mulceo,  stroke 
tided,  laugh 
suadeo,  advise 
tergeo,  wipe 
urged,  push 


algere 

alsi 

ardere 

arsi 

fulgere 

fulsi 

haerere 

haesi 

iubere 

iussi 

manere 

mansi 

mulcere 

mulsi 

ridere 

risi 

suadere 

suasi 

tergere 

tersi 

urgere 

ursi 

lUSSUS 

mansum 

mulsus  adjective 

-risus 

suasus 

tarsus 


431.  (looi.)  The  following  verbs  in  -ere  have  the  perfect 
stem  in  -v-  (379),  and  the  perfect  participle  in  -tus,  both  pre- 
ceded by  a  long  -e-  of  the  root : 

de-led,  wipe  out  de-lere  de-levi  de-letus 

fled,  weep  flere  flevi  fletus 

-^\t6,/ill  -plere  -plevi  -pletus 

432.  (1002.)  The  following  verb  in  -ere  has  the  perfect  stem 
in  -V-  (379),  preceded  by  long  -i-,  and  the  perfect  participle  in 
-tus,  preceded  by  short  -i-  of  the  root : 

cied,  set  agoing  ci€re  civi  citus 

433.  (1003.)  ^  l^c  following  verb  in  -ere  has  the  perfect  stem 
in  -V-  (379),  and  the  perfect  participle  in  -itus  (399): 
ab-oled,  destroy  ab-olere  ab-olevi  ab-olitut 

106 


The  Verb :  List  of  Verbs 


[434-436 


PERFECT   STEM   IN  -U- 

434.  (1004.)  Most  verbs  in  -ere  have  the  perfect  stem   in 

-u-  (381),  and  the  perfect  participle,  when  used,  in  -tus,  which 

is  usually  preceded  by  a  short  i  (399) :  as, 

doceo,  teach  docere  docui  doctus 

habeo,  have  habere  habui  habitus 

Compounds  have  i  for  a:  as,  pro-hibeo,  pro-hibere,  pro-hibui,  pro- 
hibitus.     Compounds  with  de  and  prae  are  regularly  contracted,  debeo, 
praebeo,  etc. 
mereo,  earn  merere  merui 

Often  deponent :  mereor,  mererl,  meritus. 
misceo,  mix  miscere  miscui 

moneo,  advise  monere  monul 

placeo,  am  pleasing  placere  placui 

taceo,  hold  my  tongue         tacere  tacui 

teneo,  hold  tenere  tenui 

Compounds  have  i  for  e  in  the  present  and  perfect:  as,  de-tineo,  de- 
tinui,  de-tentus. 

terreo,  scare  terrere  terrui  territus 

torreo,  roast  torrere  torrui  tostus 

435.  (1005.)  The  following  verb  in  -ere  has  the  perfect  stem 
in  -u-  (381),  and  the  perfect  participle  in  -sus  (400): 

censeo,  count,  rate  censere  censul  census 

436.  (1006.)  The  following  verbs  in  -ere  have  the  perfect 
stem  in  -u-  (381),  and  no  perfect  participle: 

arced,  check  arcere  arcui  

The  compounds  co-erceo  and  ex-erceo  have  e  for  a,  and  perfect  par- 
ticiples co-ercitus  and  ex-ercitus. 


meritus 

mixtus,  mistus 

monitus 

placitus 

tacitus  adjective 

-tentus 


caleo,  am  warm 

calere 

calui 

careo,  have  not 

carere 

carui 

doleoj  ache 

dolere 

dolui 

egeo,  7ieed 

egere 

egui 

e-mineo,  stick  out 

e-mmere 

e-mmui 

florea,  bloom 

florere 

florui 

horreo,  bristle  up 

horrere 

horrui 

107 


437-440] 


Words:  hiflection 


iaceo,  lie  iacere  iacul 

lateo,  lie  hid  latere  latui 

niteo,  shine  nitere  nitui 

noceo,  am  hurtful  nocere  nocui 

oleo,  smell  olere  olui 

palled,  look  pale  pallere  pallul 

pareo,  wait  o?i,  am  obedient  parere  parul 

pate5,  am  opeti  patere  patui 

sileo,  am  silent  silere  silui 

studeo,  am  eager  studere  studui 

stupeo,  am  dazed  stupere  stupui 

timed,  yi'^rr  timere  timui 

valeo,  am  strong  valere  valui 

"vi^tOf  feel  strong  vigere  vigui 


DEPONENTS   IN  -en 

437.  (1008.)  The  following  deponent  in  -eri  has  the  perfect 
participle  in  -tus: 

reor,  reckon,  think  reri  ratus 

438.  (1009.)  The  following  deponents  in  -eri  have  the  per- 
fect participle  in  -tus,  which  is  preceded  by  a  short  i  (399). 
liceor,  bid  licerl  licitus 
misereor,  pity                                   misererl  miseritus 
tueor,  look  to,  protect                      tuerl                             tuitus  late 
vereor,  am  awed  at                          vereri                            veritus 

439.  (loio.)  One  deponent  in  -eri  has  the  perfect  participle 
in  -sus  (400): 

fateor,  confess  faterl  fassu9 

Compounds  have  i  and  e  for  a;  as,  con-'fiteor,  con-fessus. 


(A. 


(3.)    VERBS   IN   -ire 

PERFECT   STEM    WITHOUT   A   SUFFIX 


440.  (loii.)  The  following  verb  in  -ire  has  a  reduplicated 
perfect  stem,  and  the  perfect  participle  in  -tus: 
re-ptrio,  Jind  re-perire         rc-pperi  re-pertus 

108 


The  Verb:  List  of  Verbs  [441-446 

The  following  verb  in  -ire  has  no  reduplication  in  the  per- 
fect stem,  and  the  perfect  participle  in  -tus: 
zovor^txiOy  fijtd  out  com-perlre      com-peri  com-pertus 

441.  (1013.)  The  following  verb  in  -ire  has  a  perfect  stem 
consisting  of  a  consonant  root  with  a  long  vowel  (374),  and 
the  perfect  participle  in  -tus: 

venio,  come  venire  veni  ventum,  -ventus 

(B.)     PERFECT  STEM  IN  -s-,  OR  IN  -v-  OR  -u- 
PERFECT  STEM    IN  -S- 

442.  (1014.)  The  following  verbs  in  -ire  have  the  perfect 
stem  in  -s-  (378),  and  the  perfect  participle  in  -tus: 

farcio,  stuff 
fulcio,  prop 
haurio,  drain 
saepio,  hedge  in 
sancid,  hallow 
sarcio,  patch 
vincio,  bind 

443.  (1015.)  The  following  verb  in  -ire  has  the  perfect  stem 
in  -s-  (378),  and  the  perfect  participle  in  -sus  (400): 

sentio,  feel  sentire  sensi  sensus 

PERFECT   STEM    IN  -V- 

444.  (1016.)  The  following  verb  in  -ire  has  the  perfect  stem 
in  -V-  (379),  and  the  perfect  participle  in  -tus,  both  preceded 
by  a  long  i  of  the  root  : 

scio,  know  scire  scivi  scitus 

445.  (1017.)  The  following  verb  in  -ire  has  the  perfect  stem 
in  -V-  (379),  and  the  perfect  participle  in  -tus: 

sepelio,  bury  sepelire  sepellvi  sepultus 

446.  (1018.)  Most  verbs  in  -ire  have  the  perfect  stem  in  -v- 
(379),  and  the  perfect  participle  in  -tus,  both  preceded  by  a 
form  of  the  present  stem  in  long  -i-:  as, 

audi5,  hear  audire  audivi  audltus 

109 


farcire 

farsi 

fart  us 

fulcire 

fulsi 

fultus 

haurire 

hausi 

haustus 

saepire 

saepsi 

saeptus 

sancire 

sanxi 

sanctus  adjective 

sarcire 

sarsi 

sartus 

vincire 

vinxi 

vinctus 

44  7~45o]  Words  :  Inflection 


PERFECT   STEM    IN   -U- 

447.  (1019.)  The  following  verbs  in  -Ire  have  the  perfect 
stein  in  -u-  (381),  and  the  perfect  participle,  when  used,  in 
-tus: 

am-icid,  don  am-icire  am-icui  am-ictus 

ap-erio,  open  ap-erire  ap-erul  ap-ertus 

op-erio,  cover  over  op-erire  op-erui  op-ertus 

salio,  leap  salire  salui  

Compounds  have  i  for  a  throughout :  as,  in-silio. 

DEPONENTS  IN  -ifi 

448.  (1020.)  The  following  deponents  in  -iri  have  the  per- 
fect participle  in  -tus: 

ex-perior,  try  ex-periri  ex-pertus 

op-perior,  wait  for  op-periri  op-pertus 

449.  (102 1.)  The  following  deponents  in  -in  have  the  per- 
fect participle  in  -itus: 

largior,  shower  largiri  largitus 

mentior,  tell  lies  mentiri  mentltus 

sortior,  draw  lots  sortiri  sortitus 

450.  (1022.)  The  following  deponents  in  -irl  have  the  per- 
fect participle  in  -sus  (400): 

metior,  measure  metiri  mensus 

ordior,  begin  ordiri  orsus 

110 


Part  Second — Sentences 


The  Simple  Sentence  and  its  Parts 

451.  (1023.)  A  Sentence  is  a  thought  expressed  by  means 
of  a  verb.  The  SUBJECT  is  that  which  is  spoken  of.  The 
Predicate  is  that  which  is  said  of  the  subject. 

452.  (1024.)  A  Simple  Sentence  is  one  which  has 
only  one  subject  and  one  predicate. 

Thus,  Rhodanus  fluit,  the  Rhone  flows,  is  a  simple  sentence :  the  sub- 
ject is  Rhodanus  and  the  predicate  is  fluit. 

453.  (1025.)  The  sentence  may  be  declarative,  stating  a  fact,  ex- 
clamatory, crying  out  about  something,  interrogative,  ?i%\i\x\^2i  question, 
or  imperative,  giving  a  command. 

The  Subject 

454.  (1026.)  The  subject  is  a  substantive,  or  any  word  or  words  hav- 
ing the  value  of  a  substantive. 

455.  (1027.)  The  subject  of  a  verb  is  in  the  nomina- 
tive case. 

456.  (1029.)  With  the  first  or  the  second  person,  the  subject  is  ex- 
pressed by  a  personal  pronoun  (ego  tu,  nos  vos)  only  when  somewhat 
emphatic.  Otherwise  the  verb  of  the  first  or  second  person  is  not  at- 
tended by  a  personal  pronoun:  as,  erara,  I  was,  eras,  thou  wert. 

457"  ('030-)  The  subject  is  regularly  omitted  when  it  is  general  and 
indefinite,  in  the  first  person  plural :  as,  intellegimus,  we  understand ; 
and  second  person  singular  :  as,  putares,  you,  or  anybody  would  have 
thought. 

Ill 


458-465]  Sentences 

458.  (1031.)  The  subject  of  the  first  or  second  person  is  sometimes  a 
substantive,  contrary  to  the  English  idiom:  as,  Hannibal  peto  pacem, 
/  Hannibal  am  suing  for  peace,  exoriare  aliquis  nostrls  ex  ossibus 
ultor,  fro7n  out  our  bones  inayst  some  avenger  spring. 

459.  (1032.)  With  the  third  person  the  subject  is  regularly  expressed, 
unless  the  general  "  he  she  it,"  or  "they  "  implied  in  the  person  ending 
is  definite  enough.     For  impersonal  verbs,  see  359. 

The  Predicate 

460.  (1035.)  The  predicate  is  either  a  verb  alone,  or  a  verb 

of  indeterminate  meaning  with  a  predicate  nominative  added 

to  complete  the  sense. 

Verbs  of  indeterminate  meaning  are  such  as  mean  am  (something), 
become,  remain,  seem,  am  thought,  am  called  or  named,  am  chosen. 

461.  (1036.)  The  verb  is  sometimes  omitted,  when  it  is  easily  under- 
stood. So  particularly  forms  of  sum :  as,  omnia  praeclara  rara,  sc.  sunt, 
all  that's  very  fair  is  rare,     mortuus  Cumis,  sc.  est,  he  died  at  Cumae. 

Enlargement  of  the  Simple  Sentence 

462.  (1039-1043.)  An  Attribute  is  an  essential  addition 

to  a  substantive,  uniting  with  it  as  one  idea:  as, 

hostium  castra,  camp  of  the  enemy,  victor  Romulus  rex,  victorious 
king  Romulus,  vir  sine  metu,  a  man  without  fear,  boves  mira  specie, 
kine  of  wondrous  beauty. 

463.  (1045.)  An  Appositive  is  a  separate  substantive  added 
as  an  explanation  to  another  substantive,  and  in  the  same 
case,  but  not  like  the  attribute  uniting  with  it  as  one  idea :  as, 

Hamilcar,  Mars  alter,  Hamilcar,  a  second  Mars.  Cornelia,  m&ter 
Gracchorum,  Cornelia,  mother  of  the  Gracchi, 

464.  (1048.)  The  predicate  may  be  enlarged  by  the  addition  of  accu- 
satives (495),  datives  (525),  or  predicate  nouns  (465). 

465.  (105 1.)  A  predicate  noun^  either  substantive  or  adjec- 
tive, denoting  "  office,  time,  age,  order,  condition,"  or  the  like, 
is  often  added  to  other  verbs  besides  those  of  indeterminate 
meaning  (460) :  as, 

lunius  aedem  dictator  dedicavit,  yiw«/wj  dedicated  a  temple  in  hts 

112 


Parts  of  the  Sentence  [466-469 

capacity  as  dictator,  not  Junius  the  dictator,      litteras  Graecas  senex 
didici,  /  learned  Greek  w/ie?i  I  was  an  old  man. 

Combination  of  Sentences 

466.  (1055.)  Simple  sentences  may  be  combined  in  two 
different  ways.  The  added  sentence  may  be  I.  Coordinate ; 
or  II.  Subordinate. 

Thus,  in  he  died  and  we  lived,  the  two  sentences  are  coordinate,  that 
is,  of  equal  rank.  But  in  he  died  that  we  might  live,  the  sentence  be- 
ginning with  that  is  subordinate.  In  either  combination  the  separate 
sentences  are  often  called  Clauses  or  Members. 


I.     THE  COMPOUND  SENTENCE  OR  COORDINATION 

467.  (1056.)  A  Compound  Sentence  is  one  which 
consists  of  two  or  more  coordinate  simple  sentences: 
as, 

tu  me  amas,  ego  te  amo,  thou  art  in  lo7>e  with  me,  Fm  in  love  with 
thee,     a  te  peto,  me  defendas,  /  ask  it  of  you,  protect  me. 


11.     THE  COMPLEX  SENTENCE  OR  SUBORDINATION 

468.  (1058.)  A  Complex  Sentence  is  one  which  con- 
sists of  a  main  and  a  subordinate  sentence:  as, 

centuriones  praemittit  (main  sentence),  qui  locum  idoneum  castris 
deligant  (subordinate  sentence),  he  sends  some  officers  ahead  to  select  a 
suitable  spot  for  the  camp,  a  te  peto  (main  sentence),  ut  me  defendas 
(subordinate  sentence),  /  ask  it  of  you  that  you  protect  me. 


AGREEMENT 

(A.)      OF    THE    VERB 

469.  (1062.)  A  verb  agrees  with  its  subject  In  num- 
ber and  person :  as, 

Rhodanus  fluit,  the  Rhone  flows,     nos,  nos,  died  aperte,  consules  de- 
sumus,  //  is  ourselves,  yes,  ourselves,  I  will  speak  without  reserve,  the 

H  113 


470-475]  Sentences 

consuls,  who  fail  in  our  duty,    vos  vobis  consulite,  do  you  look  out  for 
yourselves. 

470.  (1064.)  With  two  or  more  singular  subjects,  the  verb  is  often  in 
the  plural :  as, 

ilsdem  fere  temporibus  fuerunt  C.  Cotta,  P.  Sulpicius,  Q.  Varius,  Cn. 
Pomponius,  /;/  about  the  same  times  lived  Cotta,  Sulpicius,  Varius,  and 
Pompo7iius.  cum  senatus  populusque  Romanus  pacem  comprobaverint, 
when  the  senate  and  the  people  of  Rome  sanctioti  peace,  utrosque  et  lau- 
dis  cupiditas  et  timor  ignominiae  excitabant,  both  of  these  eagerness  for 
glory  in  the  first  place  a?id  seco?tdly  fear  of  disgrace  spurred  on. 

471.  (1066.)  Often,  however,  with  two  or  more  singular  subjects,  the 
verb  is  put  in  the  singular:  as, 

turn  Gorgias,  Thrasymachus,  Prodicus,  Hippias  in  magno  hondre 
fuit,  at  that  ti7ne  Gorgias,  Thrasymachus,  Prodicus,  and  Hippias  were  in 
high  renowfi.  senatus  populusque  Romanus  voluit,  setiate  and  people  of 
Ro7ne  ordai?ied.  talis  senatorum  et  dignitas  et  multitudo  fuit,  both  the 
position  atid  7iumber  of  the  se7iators  was  such. 

472.  (1071.)  Collectives  have  usually  a  singular  verb.  Butthe  plural 
is  sometimes  used,  especially  when  the  subject  is  separated  from  its 
verb,  or  is  to  be  supplied  from  a  preceding  clause :  as, 

cum  tanta  multitudo  lapides  conicerent,  when  such  a  thnmg  were 
throwi7tg  sto7ies.  is  civitati  persuasit,  ut  de  finibus  suis  exirent,  this 
person  succeeded  in  inducing  the  conttnunity  to  leave  their  territory. 

473.  (1072.)  The  verb  sometimes  agrees  with  an  appositive  explain- 
ing the  subject,  or  with  a  substantive  in  the  predicate:  as, 

Corioli  oppidum  captum,  Corioli  tow7i  was  taken,  summa  omnium 
fuerunt  ad  milia  CCCLXVIII,  the  gra7id  total  was  about  three  hundred  and 
sixty-eight  thousand, 

474.  (1073.)  If  the  subjects  are  of  different  persons,  the  first  person 
is  preferred  to  the  second  or  the  third,  and  the  second  to  the  third  :  as, 

SI  tu  et  Tullia,  lux  nostra,  valetis,  ego  et  suavissimus  Cicero  valemus, 
if  you  a7id  Tullia,  our  su7ibea7n,  are  well,  darling  Cicero  attd  I  are  well. 

(B.)     OF  THE  NOUN 
(0  THE  SUBSTANTIVE 

475.  (1077.)  A  substantive  which  explains  another 

substantive  referring  to  the  same  thing  is  put  in  the 

same  case. 

114 


Agreement :   The  Adjective         [476-481 

This  applies  to  the  substantive  used  as  appositive,  or  predicate. 
Appositive  :  quid  dicam  de  thesauro  rerum  omnium,  memoria?  what  shall 
I  say  of  that  universal  storehouse,  the  memory  ?  duo  fulmina  nostri  im- 
perii, Cn.  et  P.  Scipiones,  the  two  thunderbolts  of  our  realm,  the  Scipios, 
Gnaeus  and  Publius.  Predicate :  ira  furor  brevis  est,  wrath  is  a  mad- 
ness brief. 

(2.)  THE   ADJECTIVE 

476.  (1082.)  An  adjective,  adjective  pronoun,  or  par- 
ticiple, agrees  with  its  substantive  in  number,  gender, 
and  case :  as, 

vir  bonus,  a  good  man,  bona  uxor,  a  good  wife,  oleum  bonum,  good 
oil.  Gallia  est  omnis  divisa  in  partes  tres,  Gaul,  including  everything 
u?ider  the  name,  is  divided  into  three  parts, 

477.  (1083.)  An  adjective  or  participle,  either  attributive  or  predicate, 
sometimes  takes  the  number  and  gender  of  the  persons  or  things  im- 
plied in  the  substantive:  as, 

pars  subeuntium  obruti,  pars  confixl,  a  part  of  those  who  came  up  were 
crushed,  a  part  were  ruti  through.  Samnitium  caesi  tria  milia  ducenti, 
of  the  Samiiites  were  slaift  three  thousand  two  hundred. 

478.  (1087.)  A  predicate  adjective  or  participle  referring  to  two  or 
more  substantives  is  usually  in  the  plural ;  its  gender  is  determined  as 
follows : 

479.  (1088.)  If  the  substantives  denote  persons  of  the  same  gender, 
that  gender  is  used  ;  if  they  denote  persons  of  different  gender,  the  mas- 
culine is  used  :  as, 

veneno  absiimpti  Hannibal  et  Philopoemen,  it  was  by  poison  that  Han- 
jtibal  and  Philopoejnen  were  taken  off.  quam  pridem  pater  mihf  et  mater 
mortui  esseut,  how  long  my  father  and  my  mother  had  been  dead. 

480.  (1089.)  If  the  substantives  denote  things,  and  are  of  different 
genders,  the  neuter  plural  is  used ;  also  commonly  when  they  are  femi- 
nines  denoting  things:  as, 

miirus  et  porta  de  caelo  tacta  erant,  the  wall  and  toum-gate  had  been 
struck  by  lightning.  Ira  et  avaritia  imperio  potentiora  erant,  hot  blood 
and  greed  proved  stronger  t\an  authority. 

481.  (1090.)  If  the  substantives  denote  both  persons  and  things, 
either  the  gender  of  the  substantives  denoting  persons  is  used,  or  the 
neuter:  as, 

115 


482-487]     Sentejices :   The  Simple  Sentence 

et  rex  regiaque  classis  una  profecti,  the  king  too  and  the  king's  fleet 
set  sail  in  hiscompa7iy.     inimica  inter  se  llberam  civitatem  et  regem,  that 

a  free  state  and  a  monarch  were  irreconcilable  things. 

482.  (1093.)  A  neuter  adjective  or  pronoun  is  sometimes  used  as  a 
substantive  in  the  predicate  (487)  :  as, 

triste  lupus  stabulis,  a  baleful  thing  the  wolf  for  folds. 

483.  (1094.)  A  demonstrative,  determinative,  or  relative 
pronoun  used  substantively  takes  the  number  and  gender  of 
the  substantive  it  represents;  the  case  depends  on  the  con- 
struction of  the  clause  in  which  it  stands :  as, 

erant  pedites,  quos  delegerant ;  cum  his  in  proeliis  versabantur ;  ad 
e5s  se  recipiebant ;  hi  concurrebant,  there  were  foot-soldiers  whom  they 
had  picked  out ;  with  these  men  they  kept  company  in  action;  upon  them 
they  would  fall  back;  these  people  would  always  rally. 

484.  (1095.)  Sometimes,  however,  the  number  and  gender  of  these 
pronouns  are  determined  by  the  sense,  and  not  by  the  form  of  the  sub- 
stantive represented  :  as, 

equitatum  omnem  praemittit,  qui  videant,  he  scjtds  all  the  horse  ahead, 
to  see.  Domitius  Massiliam  pervenit  atque  ab  iis  receptus  urbi  praefici- 
tur,  Doiniiius  arrived  at  Massilia,  and  was  received  by  the  people  and 
put  in  charge  of  the  town. 

485.  (1096.)  A  pronoun  representing  two  or  more  substantives  some- 
times takes  the  number  and  gender  of  the  nearest.  But  usually  it  is 
plural,  and  its  gender  is  determined  like  that  of  an  adjective  (478.) 


THE  SIMPLE  SENTENCE 
(A.)     USE   OF  THE    NOUN 


NUMBER  AND  GENDER 

486.  (1 100.)  A  substantive  or  adjective  denoting  a  person  is  often 
used  in  the  singular  as  representative  of  a  class,  particularly  when  two 
persons  are  contrasted  :  as, 

si  tabulam  de  naufragio  stultus  adripuerit,  extorquebitne  earn  sapiens  ? 
if  a  fool  has  seized  a  plank  from  a  wreck,  wHl  the  sage  twitch  it  away  f 

487.  (iioi.)  The  neuter  singular  of  certain  adjectives  is 
used  as  an  abstract  substantive. 

116 


The  Notcn:  Case  [488-492 

These  adjectives  have  commonly  stems  in  -o-,  and  are  often  used  in 
the  partitive  genitive.  Such  are:  bonum,  malum;  rectum;  verum,  fal- 
sum  ;  iiistum,  iniustum  ;  simile,  etc. 

488.  (1104.)  The  masculine  plural  of  many  adjectives  is 
used  substantively  to  denote  a  class. 

Such  are:  boni,  the  good,  patriots ;  improbi,  the  wicked,  the  dangerous 
classes;  docti,  indocti ;  pil,  impil,  and  the  like. 

489.  (1106.)  The  neuter  plural  of  adjectives  of  all  degrees 
of  comparison  is  very  often  used  as  a  substantive. 

Such  adjectives  are  usually  in  the  nominative  or  accusative,  and  may 
have  a  pronoun,  a  numeral,  or  an  adjective,  agreeing  with  them.  In 
English  the  singular  is  often  preferred.  Such  are:  bona,  mala;  vera, 
falsa;  haec,  this;  omnia,  everything ;  haec  omnia,  all  this,  etc.,  etc. 


CASE 
The  Nominative 

490.  (i  1 1 3-1 117.)  The  nominative  is  principally  used  as  the 

subject  or  predicate  noun  of  a  verb  (455,  460).     Besides  this 

use,  the  nominative  occurs  in  addresses  (491)  ;  also  in  titles 

and  exclamations :  as, 

M.  Tulli  Ciceronis  de  Fato  Liber,  Cicero,  Fate,  in  One  Book,  en 
Priamus,  lo,  Priam  here. 

The  Vocative  Nominative  and  Vocative  Proper 

491.  (11 18.)  The  vocative  nominative  is  used  when 
a  person  or  thing  is  addressed :  as, 

quo  usque  tandem  abiitere,  Catilina,  patientia  nostra  ?  /;/  heaven  s 
name,  how  long,  Catiline,  wilt  trifle  with  our  patience? 

492.  (11 19.)  Masculine  stems  in  -o-  commonly  use  the 
special  form  for  the  second  person  singular  called  the  voca- 
tive (126) :  as,  s 

urbem,  urbem,  mi  Rufe,  cole,  stick  to  town,  dear  Rufus,  yes,  to  town. 
But  the  vocative  nominative  is  sometimes  used  even  of  -o-  stems:  as, 
audi  tu,  populus  Albanus,  hear  thou,  the  people  of  Alba. 

117 


493""499]      Sentences:   The  Simple  Sentence 

493.  (1 1 22.)  In  verse  the  vocative  is  occasionally  used  even  in  the 
predicate  :  as,  quo  moriture  ruis?  whither,  on  death  intent,  fiiest  thou? 
quibus,  Hector,  ab  oris  exspectate  venis  ?  out  of  what  limboes.  Hector, 

dost  thou  gladly  welcomed  come? 

494.  (1 123.)  The  vocative  nominative  or  vocative  proper  is  some- 
times accompanied  by  6,  or  by  other  interjections,  but  only  in  impas- 
sioned addresses  :  as,  6  fortunate  adulescens,  oh  thou  thrice  blest  youth. 


The   Accusative 

495.  (1124.)  The  accusative  is  used  primarily  with  verbs,  or 
with  expressions  equivalent  to  verbs.  The  relations  expressed 
by  the  accusative  are  all  of  one  general  kind;  but  they  vary 
somewhat,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  verb. 

496.  (1128-1131.)  The  accusative  is  sometimes  used  with  adjectives 
denoting  extent  (513),  and  often  with  prepositions  (659). 


THE  ACCUSATIVE  OF  THE  OBJECT 

497.  (1132.)  The  object  of  a  verb  is  put  in  the  ac- 
cusative: as, 

{a.)  oppida  sua  omnia  incendunt,  they  set  all  their  towns  aftre.  {b.)  duis 
fossas  perduxit,  he  made  two  trenches.  This  accusative  is,  as  may  be 
seen  above,  either  {a)  receptive,  i.  e.  existing  independently  of  the  action 
of  the  verb,  and  only  affected  or  apprehended  by  it;  or  {b)  of  product, 
i.e.  produced  by  the  action  of  the  verb. 

498.  (1133.)  Verbs  thus  used  with  an  object  are  said  to  be 
used  transitively.  Such  verbs  may  also  be  used  intransitively, 
that  is,  without  an  object,  when  stress  is  put  on  the  action 
merely;  thus. 

Transitively  :  tu  me  amas,  ego  te  amo,  thou  Iffvest  me,  and  I  love  thee. 
Intransitively:  amo,  /';/;  ///  lo7^e. 

499*  (1 134)  Some  verbs,  in  addition  to  the  accusative,  often  take  an 
infinitive  also  :  thus,  eum  vident  sedere,  they  see  him  sit,  they  see  that  he 
is  sitting.  Here  the  accusative  eum,  originally  the  object,  they  see  him, 
becomes  at  the  same  time  the  subject  of  the  new  statement  appended, 

118 


The  Noun  :  Accusative  [500-504 

sedere,  sit,  thus  giving  rise  to  the  construction  known  as  the  acaisa- 
tive  with  the  ififinitive. 

500.  (1137.)  Many  verbs  ordinarily  used  intransitively,  par- 
ticularly verbs  of  motion,  have  a  transitive  use  when  com- 
pounded with  a  preposition. 

Such  prepositions  are,  ad,  circum,  in,  per,  praeter,  trans,  and  some 
others :  as,  pliires  paucos  circumsistebant,  a  good  7na?tv  took  their  stand 
rotmd  a  few.  Caesar  omnem  agrum  PIcenum  percurrit,  Caesar  runs 
over  the  whole  Picene  territory,  flumen  transierunt,  tJiey  crossed  the 
river. 

501.  (II 38.)  A  few  verbs  with  a  transitive  use  have,  when  com- 
pounded with  trans,  besides  the  accusative  of  the  object,  a  second  accu- 
sative of  the  thing  to  which  the  preposition  refers :  as,  Caesar  funditores 
pontem  traducit,  Caesar  takes  the  sli7igers  over  the  bridge.  In  the  pas- 
sive, the  accusative  connected  with  the  preposition  is  sometimes  re- 
tained :  as,  Apolldniam  praetervehuntur,  they  sail  by  Apollonia. 

502.  (1139.)  Verbs  of  weeping  and  wailing,  and  some  other 

verbs  of  feeling,  which  commonly  have  an   intransitive  use, 

sometimes  have  a  transitive  use  with  an  accusative:  as, 

matronae  eum  luxerunt,  the  married  wome?t  wore  mourning  for  him. 
maereo  casum  eius  modi,  /  cannot  help  showing  my  grief  over  a  misfort- 
une of  such  a  kind.  Such  verbs  are  fleo,  weep,  gemo,  wail,  doled,  am 
distressed,  lugeo,  mourn,  maereo,  betray  sadness,  horreo,  shudder,  etc., 
etc. 

The  Emphasizing  or  Defining  Accusative 

503.  (1140.)  The  meaning  of  a  verb,  even  of  one  ordinarily 

intransitive,  may  be  emphasized  or  more  exactly  defined  by 

an  accusative  of  kindred  derivation  added.    This  is  commonly 

called  the  Cognate  Accusative. 

Seldom  without  an  adjective:  as,  vide  ne  facinus  facias,  7nind you 
don't  do  a  deed,  i.e.  a  misdeed.  Commonly  with  an  adjective:  as, 
facinus  memorabile  fecistis,  yotc  have  done  a  deed  well  worth  mentioning. 
mirum  atque  inscitum  somniavi  somniura,  a  stra7tge  a7td  silly  drea77i 
drea77ied  I. 

504.  (1141.)    The  verb    sometimes   has   an    accusat:ivp  of   kindred 

119 


505-511]      Sentences:   The  Simple  Sentence 

meaning,  but  of  different  derivation:    as,  ut  vivas  aetatem  miser,  that 
thou  inayst  live  thy  days  in  woe. 

505.  (1142.)  The  neuter  singular  accusative  of  a  descriptive  adjective 
is  used,  particularly  by  the  poets,  to  denote  manner:  as,  suave  rubens 
hyacinthus,  sweet-blushi7tg  hyaci)ith.  ciir  tam  cernis  acutum  ?  ivhy  dost 
thou  see  so  sharp?  The  plural  is  not  so  common  :  as,  acerba  tuens,  with 
savage  looks. 

506.  (i  143.)  Some  verbs  of  smell  and  of  taste  have  an  accusative  de- 
fining what  the  smell  or  the  taste  is:* as,  non  omnes  possunt  olere  un- 
guenta  exotica,  not  every  man  can  of  imported  ointments  reek. 

507.  (1144.)  Any  verb  or  verbal  expression  may  be  defined  in  a  gen- 
eral way  by  the  neuter  accusative  of  a  pronoun  or  of  an  enumerative 
word  :  as, 

id  gaudeo,  fm  glad  of  that,  cetera  adsentior  Crasso,  on  all  the  other 
points  I  agree  with  Crassus.  So  also  quod,  for  which,  on  account  of 
which,  aliquid,  nihil,  and  particularly  quid,  7(jhy,  in  what  respect,  what,  or 
what  .  .  ,  for :  as,  quid  venisti.  why  art  thou  cotne  ?  quid  tibf  obsto, 
wherein  do  I  stand  in  your  way  ? 

508.  (1 145.)  The  accusative  of  an  appelative  (5)  is  rarely  used  ad- 
verbially :  as,  maximam  partem  lacte  vivunt,  they  live  on  milk  the  most 
part,  i.e.  chiefly.  Prepositional  expression§  are  commoner:  as,  magna 
ex  parte,  principally. 

509.  (1 146.)  The  accusative  sometimes  qualifies  a  substantive  as  an 
attribute,  chiefly  in  a  few  set  expressions:  as.  orationes  aut  aliquid  id 
genus,  speeches  or  something  that  kind,  cum  id  aetatis  filio,  with  a  son 
of  that  age. 

The  Accusative  of  the  Part  Concerned 

510.  (1 147.)  Poets  use  the  accusative  to  express  the  part  concerned, 
especially  a  part  of  the  human  body :  as, 

trcmit  artus,  he  shivers  in  his  limbs.  6s  umerosque  deo  similis,  /// 
face  and  shoulders  like  a  god. 

The  Accusative  of  the  Thing  put  on 

511.  (1 148.)  The  accusative  is  used  with  reflexive  verbs  in  poetry  to 
denote  the  thing  put  on:  as, 

comantem  Androgel  galeam  induitur,  Androgens*  high-haired  helm 
he  dons,    exuvias  indutus  Achilll,  clad  in  Achilles'  spoils. 

120 


The  N^oim  :  Accusative  [5 1 2-5 1 7 


The  Accusative  of  Exclamation 

512.  (1149.)  The  accusative  is  used  in  exclamations. 

fortunatuni  NIcobulum,  lucky  man,  that  Nicobulus  I  testis  egregios, 
mighty  fine  witnesses!  sometimes  with  an  interjection:  as,  6  impera- 
torem  probum,  oh  what  a  good  commander  ! 


The  Accusative  of  Space  and  Time 

513.  (1151.)  Extent  of  space  or  duration  of  time  is 
denoted  by  the  accusative :  as, 

tridui  viam  progress!,  having  advanced  three  days  jour 7iey.  aggerem 
latum  pedes  cccxxx,  altum  pedes  lxxx  exstruxerunt,  they  built  up  a 
mound  three  hundred  and  thirty  feet  wide,  and  eighty  feet  high,  ma- 
tronae  annum  liixerunt,  the  married  woitien  wore  mourniiig  a  year. 
undeviginti  annos  natus  erat,  he  was  nineteeti  years  old.  Sometimes  per 
is  added  :  as,  liidi  per  decern  dies  fact!  sunt,  games  were  celebrated  ten 
days  long. 

514.  (II 54.)  The  accusative  is  used  with  abhinc,  ago:  as,  quaestor 
fuisti  abhinc  annds  quattuordecim,  j6>z^  were  a  quaestor fourtee?t  years  ago. 

The  Accusative  of  the  Aim  of  Motion 

515.  (1157.)  Proper  names  of  towns  and  of  little 
islands  or  peninsulas  are  put  in  the  accusative  to  de- 
note the  aim  with  expressions  of  motion  :  as, 

Labienus  Lutetiam  proficiscitur,  Labienus  starts  for  Lutetia.  Leuca- 
dem  venimus,  we  came  to  Leucas.  nocturnue  introitus  Zmyrnam,  the 
entra?tce  into  S?nyr?ia  by  night. 

516.  (11 59.)  An  appellative  urbem  or  oppidum  accompanying  the  ac- 
cusative of  a  town  name  is  usually  preceded  by  in  or  ad :  as,  ad  urbem 
Fidenas  tendunt,  they  make  for  the  city  of  Fidenae.  lugurtha  Thalam 
pervenit,  in  oppidum  vnai^mim^Jugtirtha  arrived  at  Thala,  a  large  town. 

517.  (1160.)  When  merely  "motion  towards"  or  "nearness"  is 
meant,  ad  is  used :  as,  miles  ad  Capuam  profectus  sura,  /  went  to  the 
war  as  a  private,  to  the  region  round  about  Capua. 

121 


5 1 8-5  22]      Sentences :   The  Simple  Sentence 

518.  (1161.)  In  general  the  accusative  of  country  names  is 
preceded  by  in  or  ad,  as  are  also  appellatives  (5)  regularly  in 
prose ;  but  in  poetry,  even  appellatives  without  a  preposition 
are  common. 

519.  (1162.)  The    accusatives    domum,   demos,    rus,    and 

foras  are  used  like  proper  names  of  towns:  as, 

equites  domum  contenderunt,  the  cavalry  hurried  home,  rus  ibo,  / 
shall  go  out  of  town.     efFugi  foras,  /  ran  out  of  doors. 

520.  (1 164.)  The  accusative  domum  or  domos  sometimes  has  an  at- 
tribute, usually  a  possessive  pronoun  :  as,  alius  alium  dom5s  suas  invi- 
tant,  they  invite  each  other  to  their  homes,  cum  domum  regis  devertisses, 
wheji  you  went  to  stay  at  the  king's  palace.  The  preposition  in  is  some- 
times used  when  the  attribute  is  a  genitive,  and  commonly  so  when  it 
is  any  adjective  but  a  possessive  pronoun. 

TWO   ACCUSATIVES   COMBINED 
Object  and  Predicate 

521.  (1167.)  Many  verbs  may  take  two  accusatives, 
an  object  and  a  predicate. 

Such  are  verbs  signifying  make,  keep,  choose,name  or  call,  have,  think, 
recognize  or  find,  show  oneself,  etc  ,  etc. :  as,  eum  certiorem  faciunt,  they 
let  him  know.  Ancum  Marcium  regem  populus  creavit,  the  people  made 
Ancus  Marcius  king.  Duellium  *•  Bellium  "  nominaverunt,  Duellius  they 
named  '*  Bellius."  In  the  passive  both  the  object  and  the  predicate  be- 
come nominatives :  as,  Caesar  certior  factus  est,  Caesar  was  informed. 

Person  and  Thing 

522.  (1169.)  Some  verbs  of  teaching  and  hiding,  de- 
manding and  questioning,  may  take  two  accusatives, 
one  of  a  person  and  one  of  a  thing. 

The  commonest  of  these  verbs  are  doced  and  its  compounds,  and 
celo ;  flagito,  drd,  posed,  and  rogo,  interrogo.  quid  te  litteras  doceam  ? 
why  should  /  teach  you  your  A  li  C's  ?  non  te  celavi  sermonem  T.  Ampii, 
/  have  not  kept  you  in  the  dark  about  the  talk  with  Am  plus,  interim  c6- 
tidie  Caesar  Aeduos  frdmentum  flagitare,  meantimt  Caesar  every  day  a 
dunning  the  Aeduans  for  the  grain. 

122 


The  Noun :  Dative  [523-528 

523.  (1171.)  In  the  passive  the  person  becomes  the  subject,  and  the 
accusative,  particularly  of  a  neuter  pronoun  or  adjective,  is  retained  :  as, 
omnis  militiae  artis  edoctus  fuerat,  he  had  been  thoroughly  taught  all  the 
arts  of  war.     fuerant  hoc  rogati,  they  had  been  asked  for  this. 

524.  (1172.)  Verbs  of   wishing,    reminding,    inducing,   and 

accusing,  and  some  others,  also  sometimes  take  an  accusative 

of  the  person  and  one  of  the  thing. 

Such  are  moneo  and  its  compounds,  cogo,  accuso.  The  thing  is 
usually  the  neuter  of  a  pronoun  :  as,  illud  me  admones,  you  put  me  in 
mind  of  that,    id  c5git  omnis,  he  forces  it  zi^on  all. 


The  Dative 

525.  (1175.)  The  dative  denotes  that  for  or  to  which  a 
thing  is  or  is  done,  and  either  accompanies  single  words,  such 
as  verbs,  adjectives,  sometimes  adverbs,  rarely  substantives,  or 
serves  to  modify  the  entire  sentence.  It  has  two  principal 
uses. 

526.  (1177.)  The  Essential  Complement  is  a  dative  of 
the  person  or  thing  added  to  an  idea  which  is  felt  as  incom- 
plete without  the  dative  (529). 

Thus,  paret,  he  is  obedient,  is  a  statement  which  is  felt  as  incomplete 
without  a  dative  added  to  denote  what  it  is  he  is  obedient  to,  in  the 
sentence  paret  senatui,  he  is  obedient  to  the  senate.  But  when  stress  is 
put  on  the  action  merely,  without  reference  to  its  bearing,  such  a  verb 
may  be  used  without  a  dative  :  as,  paret,  he  is  obedient,  he  yields  obedience. 

527.  (1178.)  The  Optional  COxMplement,  that  is,  the  da- 
tive of  interest,  advantage,  or  disadvantage,  adds  something 
to  an  idea  that  is  already  complete  in  itself  (537). 

Thus,  carmina  canto,  I  chant  verses,  is  a  statement  entirely  complete 
in  itself;  it  may  be  modified  or  not,  at  option,  by  a  dative,  thus  :  car- 
mina virginibus  puerisque  cantd,  verses  for  maids  and  boys  I  chant. 

528.  (1 179.)  The  dative  of  certain  substantives  is  used  predicatively 

(547).  

123 


5  2  9"5  33]      ^^''^ tences :    The  Siynple  Sen tence 

the  essential  complement 
The  Dative  with  Verbs 

529.  (1180.)  Many  verbs  require  a  dative  to  com- 
plete their  meaning. 

With  Verbs  of  Intransitive  Use 

530.  (11 8 1.)  Many  verbs  of  intransitive  use,  particularly 
such  as  denote  a  state,  disposition,  feeling,  or  quality,  take  the 
dative :  as, 

quodne  vobis  placeat,  displiceat  mihi  ?  shall  that  which  pleases  you, 
displeasing  be  to  me  f  ignoscas  velim  huic  festinationi  m^Si^y  please  excuse 
haste,  huic  legioni  Caesar  confldebat  maxime,  Caesar  trusted  this  legion 
most  of  all.  an  C.  Trebonid  ego  persuasl  ?  luas  it  I  that  brought  convic- 
tion to  Trebo7iius?  In  the  passive,  such  verbs  are  used  impersonally, 
the  dative  remaining:  as,  his  persuader!  non  poterat,  these  could  not  be 
persuaded. 

531.  (i  182.)  This  dative  is  used  with  such  verbs  or  verbal  expressions 
as  mean  am  pleasing  or  displeasing,  helpful  or  injurious,  command,  yield, 
or  am  obedient,  am  friendly,  partial,  or  opposed ;  spare,  pardon,  threaten, 
trust,  advise,  persuade,  happett,  meet.  But  the  English  translation  is  not 
a  safe  guide:  many  of  the  verbs  used  with  a  dative  are  represented 
transitively  in  English;  and  some  verbs  of  the  meanings  above  are 
used  transitively  in  Latin :  as,  delecto,  iuvo,  laedd,  etc.,  etc. 

532.  (11 88  f.)  Many  verbs  of  intransitive  use  compounded 
with  a  preposition  take  a  dative  connected  in  sense  with  the 
preposition  :  as, 

omnibus  adfuit  his  pugnls  Dolabella,  Dolabella  was  on  hand  in  all 
these  battles,  ponto  nox  incubat  atra,  in>er  the  deep,  night  broodeth  black. 
cognitionibus  de  Christianis  interfui  numquam,  /  have  ne7>er  been  to  any 
of  the  trials  of  the  Christians.  The  prepositions  are  chiefly  ad,  ante, 
com-,  in,  inter,  ob,  prae,  sub,  or  super. 

With  Verbs  of  Transitive  Use 

533*  (i  192.)  Many  verbs  of  transitive  use  take  the  dative:  as, 
%l  filiam  suam  in  matrimonium  dat,  he  gives  this  person  his  own  daugh- 
ter in  marriage,    decima  legio  6i  gratias  egit,  the  tenth  legion  gave  hint 

124 


The  Noun:  Dative  [534~53S 

thanks,  huic  fart  subsidium  Pulio,  to  him  Pulio  brings  aid.  reliqui 
sese  fugae  mandarunt,  the  rest  betook  themselves  to  flight,  equites  im- 
perat  civitatibus,  he  issues  orders  to  the  communities  for  horse. 

534'  (1194^-)  Many  verbs  of  transitive  use  compounded 
with  a  preposition  take  a  dative  connected  in  sense  with  the 
preposition  :  as, 

timorem  bonis  iniecistis,  j^Z/r  have  striick  terror  into  the  hearts  of  pa- 
triots, neminem  huic  praefero,  there  is  7iobody  I  put  before  him.  hibernis 
Labienum  praeposuit,  he  put  Labienus  over  the  winter-quarters.  The 
prepositions  are  circum,  de,  ex,  post,  or  those  named  in  532. 

535.  (1 199.)  dono  and  circumdo,  with  some  other  compounds,  admit 
either  the  dative  of  the  person  or  thing  and  accusative  of  the  thing,  or 
the  accusative  of  the  person  or  thing  and  ablative  of  the  thing:  as, 
praedam  militibus  donat,  he  presejits  the  booty  to  the  soldiers,  scrlbam 
tuum  anulo  dona.sti,  you  presented  your  clerk  with  a  ring. 

The  Dative  with  Adjectives 

536.  (1200.)  The  dative  with  many  adjectives  and 
some  adverbs  denotes  that  to  which  the  quaHty  is 
directed. 

Such  have  the  meaning  of  useful,  necessary, fit,  easy,  agreeable,  know?i, 
near,  belonging,  friendly,  faithful,  like,  and  most  of  their  opposites :  as, 
ver  utile  silvis,  the  spring  is  good  for  woods,  est  senator!  necessarium 
nosse  rem  ^^hlicaxn,  for  a  senator  it  is  indispensable  to  be  conversant  with 
govertiment.     convenienter  naturae  vivere,  to  live  iJt  touch  7vith  nature. 

the  optional  complement 

537.  (1205.)  The  dative  of  a  person  or  thing  inter- 
ested, benefited,  harmed,  may  be  added  at  option  to 
almost  any  verb  :  as, 

conservate  parent!  f!liuni,  parentem  f!li6,  save  the  soji  for  the  father, 
the  father  for  the  son.  mea  domus  tibi  patet,  mihi  clausa  est,  the  very 
house  I  own  is  open  for  you,  is  shut  upon  me. 

538.  (1207.)  The  dative  is  often  added  to  the  entire  sen- 
tence, where  either  a  genitive  or  a  possessive  pronoun  limit- 
ing a  substantive  might  be  used. 

125 


539-544]      Sentences:   The  Simple  Sentence 

In  such  cases  the  dative  expresses  interest,  advantage,  or  disad- 
vantage, while  the  genitive  would  simply  indicate  the  owner  or  the 
object:  as,  transfigitur  scutum  Pulioni,  unfortunately  for  Pulio,  his 
shield  gets  pierced  through  and  through,  militanti  in  Hispania  pater  li 
moritur,  while  serving  in  Spain  he  had  the  misfortune  to  lose  his  father. 
nostris  militibus  spem  minuit,  //  dashed  the  hopes  of  our  soldiers. 

539.  (1209.)  Verbs  of  warding  off  sometimes  take  a  dative,  especially 
in  poetry,  also  those  of  robbing  and  ridding:  as,  solstitium  pecori  de- 
fendite,  the  summer  s  heat  keep  distant  for  the  flock,  torquem  detraxit 
hosti,  he  pulled  a  torque  away  from  his  etiemy. 

540.  (1210.)  With  verbs  of  motion  the  dative  of  the  person  interested 
denotes  in  poetry  the  end  of  motion  also:  as,  multos  Danaum  demitti- 
mus  Oreo,  we  settd  down  matiy  a  Danaan  for  the  nether  king.  So  also 
the  dative  of  personified  words  of  place:  as,  it  clamor  cael5,  up  goes  a 
shout  for  heaven,  i.  e.  heaven  hears  a  shout. 

The  Emotional  Dative 

541.  (1211.)  The  dative  of  the  personal  pronoun  is  often  used  with 
expressions  of  emotion,  interest,  surprise,  or  derision:  as, 

quid  mihf  Celsus  agit  ?  how  fares  me  Celsus  ?  at  tibf  repente,  cum 
minime  exspectarem,  venit  ad  me  Canlnius  mane,  but  bless  you,  sir,  when 
I  least  dreamt  of  it,  who  should  drop  in  on  me  all  at  once  but  Caninius, 
bright  and  early. 

The  Dative  of  the  Possessor 

542.  (121 2.)  The  dative  is  used  with  forms  of  sum 
to  denote  the  possessor:  as, 

est  homini  cum  deo  similitudo,  man  has  a  resemblance  to  god.  an 
nescis  longas  regibus  esse  manus  ?  dost  possibly  not  know  kings  have  long 
arms?  So  also  with  the  compounds  absum,  desum,  supersum:  as,  h6c 
unum  Caesarl  defuifc,  this  was  all  Caesar  lacked. 

543.  (1213.)  With  mihfest  nomen,  the  name  is  put  either  in  the  dative 
or  in  the  nominative:  as,  mihl  nomen  est  lulio,  or  mih? nomen  est  lulius, 
my  name  is  fulius. 

544.  (12 1 5.)  With  a  gerundive,  the  dative  of  the  possessor 
denotes  the  person  who  has  the  action  to  do;  this  is  often 
called  the  dative  of  the  agent.     See  991. 

126 


The  Noun  :  Dative  [545-548 

545.  (1 216.)  This  dative  is  sometimes  used  with  the  perfect  participle, 
and  the  tenses  formed  with  it :  as,  carmina  nulla  mihl  sunt  scripta,  no 
poetry  have  I  ready  made.  Rarely  with  passives  of  the  present  system  : 
as,  nulla  placere  diu  nee  vivere  carmina  possunt,  quae  scribuntur  aquae 
potoribus,  no  verse  can  take  or  be  lo7iglived  that  by  teetotallers  is  writ. 

The  Dative  of  Relation 

546.  (12 1 7.)  The  dative  may  denote  the  person  viewing  or 
judging:  as, 

eris  mihl  magnus  Apoll5,  thou  shall  to  vie  the  great  Apollo  be.  Par- 
ticiples are  often  used  to  denote  the  person  viewing  or  judging:  as,  est 
urbe  egressis  tumulus,  there  is,  as  you  get  out  of  town,  a  tnound. 

THE    PREDICATIVE    DATIVE 
The  Dative  of  Tendency  or  Result 

547.  (12 19.)  Certain  datives  are  used  with  a  form  of 
sum  to  denote  what  a  thing  tends  to,  proves,  or  is. 
This  dative  is  generally  accompanied  by  a  dative  of  the 
person  interested  (537):  as, 

auxilio  is  fuit,  he  was  a  help  to  them,  potestne  bonum  cuiquam  maid 
esse?  can  good  prove  bad  for  any  huma7i  being?  res  et  fortunae  tuae 
mihf  maximae  ciirae  sunt,  j<?wr  mo7iey-matters  are  an  all-absorbing  inter- 
est to  me. 

The  Dative  of  Purpose  or  Intention 

548.  (1223.)  A  few  datives  are  used  to  denote  what  a  thing 

is  intended  to  be.     This  dative  is  generally  accompanied  by  a 

dative  of  the  person  interested  (537). 

So  dono  and  miineri:  as,  centum  boves  militibus  dono  dedit,  he  gave 
the  soldiers  a  hundred  oxen  as  a  present.  Also  auxilid,  praesidio,  and 
subsidio,  used  of  military  operations,  chiefly  with  verbs  of  motion:  as, 
il,  qui  praesidio  contra  castra  erant  relicti,  subsidio  suis  ierunt,  the  men 
that  had  been  left  as  a  protection  against  the  camp,  went  as  a  reiiiforce- 
ment  to  their  own  side,  receptui  is  also  used  in  military  language  to 
denote  purpose :  as,  Caesar  receptui  cani  iussit,  Caesar  ordered  the  retreat 
sounded. 

127 


549-553]      Sentences:   The  Simple  Sejitence 


The  Genitive 

549.  (1226.)  The  genitive  is  principally  used  with  nouns, 
less  frequently  with  verbs.  Sometimes  even  when  it  seems 
to  be  dependent  on  a  verb,  it  really  depends  on  a  substantive 
understood,  or  on  a  noun  virtually  contained  or  implied  in 
the  verb.  Some  verbs  require  an  accusative  also,  in  addition 
to  the  genitive. 

THE   GENITIVE   WITH    SUBSTANTIVES 

550.  (1227.)  A  substantive  is  often  limited  by  another 
substantive  in  the  genitive. 

551.  (1228.)  The  hniited  substantive  is  often  omitted,  when  it  is  ob- 
vious from  the  context :  as,  ventum  erat  ad  Vestae,  sc.  aedem,  to  Ves- 
tas were  we  come,  i.  e.  to  her  temple,  aberam  bidui,  sc.  iter,  /  was  two 
days  distant.  Usually  so,  when  it  is  expressed  with  another  genitive, 
which  generally  precedes  :  as,  quis  est,  qui  possit  conferre  vitam  Trebonii 
cum  Dolabellae?  who  is  there  that  can  compare  the  life  of  Trebonius 
with  Dolabellas? 

552.  (1 231.)  The  relations  expressed  by  the  limiting  genitive  vary 
very  much  according  to  the  context.  These  relations  may  be  put  in 
classes,  as  below.  But  it  must  be  remembered  that  as  the  genitive  con- 
nects substantives  in  a  loose  way,  the  same  construction  may  sometimes 
be  referred  to  more  than  one  head. 

The  Genitive  of  the  Subject,  Cause,  Origin,  or  Owner 

553'  (1232.)  The  genitive  is  used  to  denote  that  which  does 
the  action,  or  which  causes,  originates,  or  possesses  the  object 
designated  by  the  substantive  it  limits:  as, 

metus  hostium,  the  fear  of  the  enemy,  i.  e.  which  they  feel,  adventus 
Caesaris,  the  arrival  of  Caesar,  bellum  Venetorum,  the  war  with  the 
Venetans.  Canachi  signa,  statues  by  Canachus.  Cupidinis  signum,  the 
statue  representing^  Cupid,  huius  signis,  with  statues  belonjrinjr  to  this 
man.  Cannarum  pugna,  the  battle  of  Cannae,  pridie  eius  diei,  the  day 
before  that  day  (661). 

128 


The  Noun :    Genitive  [55 4-5  5 8 

554.  (1233.)  Instead  of  the  genitive,  an  adjective  is  often  used  to  ex- 
press such  relations  :  as,  odium  paternum,  the  hatred  felt  by  his  father. 
bello  Cassiano,  in  the  war  with  Cassius.  intra  domesticos  parietes, 
within  the  walls  of  our  houses,     pugna  Cannensis,  the  battle  of  Cannae. 

555*  (1234  f.)  The  possessive  pronoun  is  regularly  used 
instead  of  the  possessive  genitive  of  a  personal  or  reflexive 
pronoun  :  as, 

mea  domus,  my  own  house,  in  tua  quadam  epistola,  in  a  letter  of 
yours.  A  word  in  apposition  with  the  possessive  pronoun  is  put  in  the 
genitive :  as,  mea  iinius  opera,  by  my  sole  instrumentality,  ad  vestram 
omnium  caedem,/^r  the  murder  of  you  all.  So  particularly  ipse,  omnis, 
solus,  and  iinus. 

556.  (1236.)  The  genitive  is  often  used  predicatively  with 
verbs  meaning  am^  belong,  become,  make^  seem,  am  accounted, 
etc.,  etc.:  as, 

hie  versus  Plauti  non  est,  hie  est,  this  line  is  not  Plautus's,  this  one  is. 
neque  se  iiidieare  Galliam  potius  esse  Ariovisti  quam  populi  Romani, 
a7id  that  he  did  not  think  Gaul  was  any  more  Ariovistus's  than  it  was  the 
Rojnans\ 

557.  (1237.)  The  possessive  genitive  of  a  person  or  of  an  abstract  is 
particularly  common  when  the  subject  of  the  verb  is  an  infinitive  or 
sentence  :  as, 

erat  amentis,  cum  aciem  videres,  paeem  cogitare,  it  was  a  madman  s 
act,  dreaming  of  peace  when  you  saw  the  troops  in  battalia,  non  est 
pudoris  mei,  me  propugnatorem  P.  Seipionis  profiteri,  //  is  not  in  keeping 
with  my  delicacy  to  set  up  as  the  champion  of  Scipio. 

The  Genitive  of  Quality 

558.  (1239.)  The  genitive  u^ith  an  adjective  in  agreement 
is  used  to  denote  quality,  either  attributively  or  predicatively : 
as, 

Attributively :  magni  ponderis  saxa,  stones  of  great  weight,  summae 
spei  aduleseentes,  young  men  of  high  promise,  vallo  pedum  ix,  with  a 
nine  foot  palisade.  Predicatively  :  magnae  habitus  auctoritatis,  ^a^j-^;/^ 
for  a  man  of  great  influence,  fiuminis  erat  altitude  eireiter  pedum  trium, 
the  depth  of  the  river  was  about  three  feet.  The  genitive  of  quality  re- 
sembles the  ablative  of  quality  (643);  the  two  are  sometimes  combined : 
I  129 


5  5  9~5  ^  5  ]     ^^'^  tences :   The  Simple  Sen  tence 

as,  hominem  maximi  corporis  terribilique  facie,  a  man  of  gigantic  frame 
and  with  an  awe-inspiring  presence.  But  the  genitive  is  common  in 
designations  of  size  and  number. 

The  Partitive  Genitive 

559.  (1241.)  The  partitive  genitive  denotes  a  whole  of  which 
the  limited  substantive  denotes  a  part.  There  are  two  kinds 
of  partitive  genitive,  the  numerical  and  the  quantitative. 

560.  (1242.)  The  numerical  partitive  is  a  plural  or  a  col- 
lective, limiting  a  word  expressing  part  of  the  number:  as, 

pars  equitatus,  part  of  the  cavalry,  multae  istarum  arborum,  many  of 
the  trees  yoM  see  there,  nemo  nostrum,  not  one  of  us.  horum  omnium  for- 
tissimi  sunt  Belgae,  of  ail  these  the  stoutest  fighters  are  the  Belgians. 

561.  (1244.)  The  plurals  tot,  totidem,  and  quot,  are  not  used  parti- 
tively,  and  omnes  and  ciincti  only  so  by  poets  and  late  prose  writers, 
plerique  is  used  either  way,  in  agreement,  or  with  the  genitive. 

562.  (1245.)  The  numerical  partitive  is  exceptionally  used  in  poetry 
with  the  positive  of  a  descriptive  adjective:  as,  sancte  deorum,  thou  holy 

of  the  gods. 

563.  (1246.)  Instead  of  the  numerical  partitive,  a  prepositional  ex- 
pression with  ante,  inter,  or  in,  or  with  ex  or  de,  is  sometimes  used :  as, 
ante  alios  acceptissimus,  most  welcome  before  others.  So  particularly 
quidam  and  unus,  duo,  tres,  with  ex  or  de :  as,  quidam  ex  his,  one  of 
these,     unus  de  multis,  one  of  the  common  herd. 

564.  (1247  f.)  The  quantitative  partitive  is  usually  a  singu- 
lar, limiting  a  neuter  singular  word  denoting  amount.  The 
limited  word  is  either  a  nominative,  or  an  accusative  without 
a  preposition :  as, 

multum  aestatis,  much  of  the  summer,  quam  minimum  spatii,  as  little 
time  as  possible,  id  aetatis,  at  that  time  of  life,  quid  causae  est  ?  what 
earthly  reason  is  there'/  Such  neuters  are  :  multum,  plurimum,  amplius, 
plus,  paulum,  minus,  minimum,  tantum,  quantum.  Furthermore,  id,  hoc, 
nihil ;  also  partim,  parum,  and  satis. 

565.  (1249.)  A  few  adjectives  of  place  and  time  indicating  a  particu- 
lar part  of  an  object,  are  commonly  used  in  immediate  agreement  with 
their  substantives :  as, 

130 


The  Nou  11 :  Gen  itive  [566-572 

summus  mons,  the  highest  part  of  the  vioimtain,  or  the  mount  am- top. 
extrema  hieme,  media  aestate,  at  the  end  of  the  whiter,  in  midsummer. 
Such  are :  primus,  intimus,  medius,  extremus,  postremus,  ultimus,  sum- 
mus, infimus,  imus,  reliquus. 

566.  (1250.)  The  limiting  genitive  is  often  the  neuter  singular  of  an 
adjective  used  substantively  :  as, 

aliquid  boni,  something  good,  numquid  tandem  novi  ?  nothing  new, 
pray?     This  use  is  ordinarily  confined  to  stems  in  -o-. 

567.  (1253.)  Some  appellatives  of  place  are  put  in  the  genitive  with 
adverbs  of  place :  as,  ubinam  gentium  ?  where  in  the  world?  nusquam 
gentium,  nowhere  in  the  world. 

The  Genitive  of  Definition 

568.  (1255.)  The  genitive  is  used  to  define  that  of  which  a 
thing  consists  :  as, 

magna  multitiido  perditorum  hominum,  a  perfect  swarm  of  desperadoes. 
innumerabile  pondus  auri,  a  weight  of  gold  too  great  to  count. 

569.  (1256.)  The  genitive  of  an  explicit  word  containing  the 
leading  idea  is  sometimes  used  to  define  a  more  general  word  : 
as, 

confisus  miinitidne  fossae,  relying  on  the  defensive  works  in  the  shape 
of  a  moat.  Particularly  with  the  words  vox,  nomen  :  as,  haec  vox  vo- 
luptatis,  this  word  ''pleasure."     nomen  amicitiae,  the  name  ''■friendship.'' 

570.  (1257.)  The  genitive  of  definition  is  very  common  with  causa, 
less  common  with  gratia,  to  define  what  the  motive  or  cause  is:  as, 
amicitiae  C3iusa.y  from  motives  of  friendship,  vestra  c&.\isa.,  for  your  sake. 
honestatis  amplitudinisque  gratia,  i7t  compliment  to  their  respectability 
and  high  social  standing. 

The  Objective  Genitive 

571.  (1260.)  The  objective  genitive  denotes  the  object  of 

the  action  expressed  in  the  limited  substantive:  as, 

metus  hostium,  the  fear  of  the  enemy,  i.  e,  which  is  felt  towards  them, 
venditio  bonorum,  sale  of  the  goods,  liictii  filii,  from  grief  for  his  son. 
miserrima  est  contentio  honorum,  a  scramble  for  office  is  a  pitiful  thi7ig. 

572.  (1261.)  Instead  of  the  objective  genitive,  a  prepositional  ex- 
pression is  sometimes  used  with  greater  precision:  as, 

131 


573~57^]      Sentences:   The  Simple  Sentence 

raetus  a  vi  atque  ira  de6rum,y>«r  of  the  might  and  wrath  of  the  gods. 
So  especially  the  accusative,  usually  denoting  a  person,  with  in,  erga,  or 
adversus,  combined  with  substantives  denoting  feeling :  as,  vestra  erga 
me  YoXwvitaiSy  your  good-will  towards  me. 

THE   GENITIVE   WITH   ADJECTIVES 

573.  (1263.)  The  genitive  is  used  with  many  adjec- 
tives to  denote  the  object. 

Such  are  chiefly  adjectives  meaning  {a.)  desirous,  (J?.)  knowing,  or  re- 
membering,  {c.)  participating,  controlling,  ox  guilty,  {d.)  full,  and  most 
of  their  opposites  ;  as,  {a.)  auri  cupidus,  eager  for  gold,  {b.)  t%\  mllitaris 
peritissimus,  a  master  of  the  art  military,  immemor  beneficiorum, 
memor  patriae,  forgetful  of  kindness,  never  forgetting  his  country.  (^.) 
praedae  participes,  sharing  in  the  booty,  (d.)  fons  plenissimus  piscium, 
a  fountain  swarming  with  fish. 

574.  (1266.)  The  genitive  of  the  object  is  often  used  with  present 
participles  which  express  permanent  condition  :  as,  semper  appetentes 
gloriae  praeter  ceteras  gentis  fuistis,  you  have  always  been  more  hungry 
for  glory  than  afty  other  nation.  In  Caesar  seldom  :  as,  fugiens  laboris, 
apt  to  shirk  exertion. 

575.  (1270.)  In  poetry  and  late  prose,  the  genitive  is  used  very  freely 
with  many  adjectives  of  various  meanings,  often  merely  to  indicate  what 
they  apply  to  :  as, 

aevi  matiirus  Acestes,  Acestes,  ripe  in  years,  integer  vitae  sceleris- 
que  purus,  the  man  unspotted  in  his  life  and  clean  of  sin.  fessi  rerum,  in 
travail  spent. 

THE   GENITIVE  WITH  VERBS 

Verbs  of  Valuing 

576.  (1271.)  A  few  neuter  adjectives  of  quantity  are  put  in 
the  genitive  with  verbs  of  valuing  to  denote  the  amount  of 
estimation  ;  such  genitives  are  : 

magni,  pluris,  plurimi ;  parvi,  minoris,  minimi ;  tanti,  quanti. 
The  verbs  with  which  these  genitives  are  used  are  aestimo,  duco, 
facio,  habed,  pendo,  puto,  and  sum;  rarely  existimo:  as  magni  opera 
eius  aestimata  est,  his  services  were  rated  high,  est  mihf  tanti,  //  is  well 
worth  my  while,  quanti  is  a  civibus  suis  fieret  ignorabas  ?  did  not  you 
know  how.  the  man  was  prized  by  his  own  townsmen  ? 

132 


The  Nou n :  Gen itive  [577~5S2 

577.  (1273.)  With  aestimo,  the  ablatives  magno  and  permagno  are 
sometimes  used:  as,  quid?  tu  ista  permagno  aestimas  ?  tell  me,  do  you 
rate  that  sort  of  thing  very  high  yourself?     Compare  653. 

578.  (1274.)  The  genitives  tanti  and  quanti,  pluris  and  minoris  are 
also  used  with  verbs  of  buying  and  selling,  hiring  and  letting,  and  cost- 
ing. But  other  words  are  put  in  the  ablative  with  these  verbs  :  see  652. 
For  magni,  etc.,  with  refert  and  interest,  see  581. 

The  Verbs  refert  and  interest 

579.  (1277.)  With  refert  and  interest,  a  first  or  second  per- 
son concerned  is  denoted  by  the  possessive  pronoun  forms 
mea,  tua,  nostra,  vestra;  and  the  third  person  reflexive  by 
sua:  as, 

quid  id  refert  mea  ?  what's  that  to  me  ?  non  nostra  magis  quam  ves- 
tra refert  vos  non  rebellare,  //  is  not  77iore  for  our  interest  tha7i  for  your 
own  that  you  should  not  ?nake  war  again,  vestra  h5c  maxime  interest, 
this  is  of  vital  momettt  to  you. 

580.  (1278.)  With  interest,  a  third  person  or  thing  con- 
cerned is  denoted  by  the  genitive.  Also  with  refert,  a  few 
times:  as, 

quid  eius  intererat  ?  what  concern  was  it  of  his?  interesse  rli  publicae 
se  cum  Pompeio  colloqui,  that  it  was  of  importance  to  the  conunoti  weal 
that  he  should  have  a  parley  with  Pompey.  faciundum  aliquid,  quod 
illorum  magis  quam  sua  retulisse  videretur,  that  he  must  do  soinething 
which  should  seem  more  for  the  other  side  s  good  than  his  own. 

581.  (1279.)  The  matter  of  concern  is  expressed  by  a  sentence  or  in- 
finitive, or  by  a  neuter  pronoun.  The  degree  of  concern  is  expressed 
by  an  adverb,  as  magnopere,  by  a  neuter  accusative,  as  multum,  or  by  a 
genitive  of  estimation,  magni,  permagni,  pluris,  parvl,  tanti,  quanti  (576). 

Judicial  Verbs 

582.  (i  280.)  Verbs  of  accusing,  convicting,  condemn- 
ing, and  acquitting,  take  a  genitive  of  the  charge:  as, 

C.  Verrem  insimulat  avaritiae,  he  charges  Verres  with  avarice,  pro- 
ditionis  damnatus  est,  he  was  convicted  of  treason.  Pollis  peciiniae  pub- 
licae est  condemnatus,  Pollis  was  condei7ined  for  etnbezzlemetit  of  gov- 
ern7ne7tt  77io7iey.     maiestatis  absoluti  sunt  permulti,  a  good  7na7iy  were 

133 


583-5^9]      Sentences:   The  Simple  Sentence 

acquitted  of  high   treason.     With  this  genitive,  an  ablative,  crimine, 
iudicio,  nomine,  or  lege,  is  sometimes  expressed  (645). 

583.  (128 1.)  The  charge  is  sometimes  denoted  by  a  prepositional 
construction  :  as,  de  pecuniis  repetundis,  of  extortion,  de  vl,  of  an  act  of 

violence.     For  the  neuter  accusative,  see  524. 

584.  (1282.)  The  penalty  also  is  sometimes  denoted  by  the  genitive, 
sometimes  by  the  ablative. 

Impersonal  Verbs  of  Mental  Distress 

585.  (1283.)  A  genitive  of  the  thing,  commonly  with  an 
accusative  of  the  person,  is  used  with  five  impersonals  of  men- 
tal distress : 

miseret,  paenitet,  piget,  pudet,  taedet :  as, 
fratris  me  pudet  pigetque,  my  brother  stirs  my  shame  and  my  disgust. 
mi  pater,  me  tul  pudet,  dear  father,  in  thy  presence  I'm  cbbashed.    galea- 
tum  sero  duelli  paenitet,  too  late,  with  casque  on  head,  a  combatant  repent- 
eth  him  of  war. 

586.  (1285.)  The  genitive  is  used  with  the  personals  misereor  or 
misereo,  and  in  poetry  with  miseresco:  as, 

miseremini  sociorum,  do  take  pity  on  your  allies.  Arcadil  miserescite 
regis,  take  pity  on  the  king  of  Arcady. 

587.  (1286.)  Personal  verbs  of  desiring,  loathing,  admiring,  and  dread- 
ing, sometimes  take  the  genitive:  as,  quamquam  domi  cupio,  opperiaTi 
although  I  yearn  for  home,  I'll  wait,  iustitiaene  prius  mirer,  belline  la- 
borum  ?  thy  justice  first  shall  I  admire  ?  thy  toils  in  war  ? 

Verbs  of  Memory 

588.  (1287.)  The  genitive  is  used  with  verbs  of 
remembering  and  forgetting:  as, 

vivorum  memini,  nee  tamen  Epicurl  licet  oblivisci,  /  remember  the  liv- 
ing, and  yet  it  will  not  do  for  me  to  be  forgetful  of  Epicurus,  reminis- 
ceretur  incommodi  populi  Romani,  he  had  better  call  to  mind  the  rebuff 
dealt  out  to  Rome. 

589.  (1288.)  With  verbs  of  remembering  and  forgetting  the  thing  is 
sometimes  expressed  by  the  accusative,  and  regularly  when  it  is  a  neuter 
pronoun,  memini  takes  also  the  accusative  of  a  person  we  have  known : 
as,  Cinnam  memini,  vidi  Sullam,  /  can  remember  Cinna,  I  have  seen  Sulla, 
recorder  takes  the  accusative  much  oftener  than  the  genitive. 

134 


The  Noun :  A bla tive  [ 5 90~ 5 9^ 

590.  (1289.)  The  ablative  also  with  de  occurs  with  me  mini :  as,  de 
palla  mementd,  doit  t  forget  about  the  gown.  Likewise  with  recorder, 
particularly  of  persons :  as,  recordare  de  ceteris,  bethink  voiirself  about 
the  rest  of  the  men. 

591.  (1290.)  The  impersonal  venit  in  mentem  also  takes  the  genitive  : 
as,  venit  mihi  Platonis  in  mentem,  Plato  comes  into  my  head. 

592.  (1 291.)  Verbs  of  reminding  take  the  accusative  of  a  person  and 
sometimes  with  it  the  genitive  of  a  thing:  as, 

admonebat  alium  egestatis,  alium  cupiditatis  suae,  he  reminded  one 
matt  of  his  beggary,  another  of  his  greed.  Oftener,  however,  the  thing 
is  in  the  ablative  with  de,  or,  if  it  is  a  neuter  pronoun  or  adjective,  in 
the  accusative  (524). 

Verbs  of  Participation  and  Mastery 

593.  (1292.)  Verbs  of  participation  and  mastery  sometimes  take  the 
genitive  in  poetry.  So,  even  in  prose,  potior,  which  usually  has  the  ab- 
lative (646) :  as,  totius  Galliae  sese  potiri  posse  sperant,  they  hope  they 
can  get  the  mastery  over  the  whole  of  Gaul.  Especially  with  persons,  or 
with  the  genitive  plural  rerum:  as,  renim  potior,  I  am  master  of  the  situ- 
ation, or  /  am  monarch  of  all  I  survey. 

Verbs  of  Fulness  and  Want 

594.  (1293.)  The  genitive  is  sometimes  used  with  verbs  of  filling, 
abounding,  and  lacking,  as  it  is  with  the  corresponding  adjectives  (573): 
as, 

convivium  vicinorum  cotidie  compleo,  /  fill  out  a  dinner  -party  ei-'ery 
day  with  neighbors.  So  with  egeo  sometimes:  as,  egeo  consilii,  I  am 
in  need  of  some  advice.  So  usually  with  indigeo :  as,  hoc  bellum  indiget 
celeritatis,  this  war  requires  rapid  action.  For  the  ablative  with  verbs 
of  lacking,  see  601, 

595.  (1294.)  With  verbs  of  separating  and  abstaining,  the  ablative  is 
regularly  used  (600).  But  the  genitive  is  sometimes  found  in  poetry  : 
as,  abstineto  irarum  calidaeque  rixae,  from  bursts  of  rage  keep  thou  and 
hot  affray. 

The   Ablative 

596.  (1296.)  The  ablative  is  used  principally  with  verbs  and 
their  participles,  or  with  adjectives,  and  consists  of  three  cases 
that  were  originally  distinct. 

135 


597~^05]      Sentences:   The  Simple  Sentence 

597.  (1297.)  The  Ablative  proper  denotes  that  from  which 
something  parts  or  proceeds  (600). 

598.  (1299.)  The  Locative  case  denotes  the  place  in,  at, 
or  on  which  action  occurs.  A  few  forms  of  the  locative 
proper  are  still  preserved  (620).  But  ordinarily  the  locative 
ablative  is  used  to  denote  the  place  where  (623). 

599.  (1300.)  The  Instrumental  case  denotes  that  by  which 
or  with  which  a  main  person  or  thing  is  attended  (634). 


THE   ABLATIVE   PROPER 
The  Ablative  of  Separation  and  Want,  and  of  Departure 

600.  (1302.)  Verbs  of  separation  take  an  ablative  of 
the  thing  from  which  separation  takes  place:  as, 

adhuc  Q.  Ligarius  omni  culpa  vacat,  thus  far  Ltgarius  proves  devoid 
of  any  guilt.  Italia  prohibetur :  non  tu  eum  patria  privare,  qua  caret, 
sed  vita  vis,  he  is  kept  out  of  Italy  ;  you  want  to  deprive  him  not  of  his 
country,  from  which  he  is  debarred,  but  of  life,  liberemus  cura  populum 
Romanum,  let  me  relieve  Rome  of  anxiety. 

601.  (1303.)  This  ablative  is  used  (a.)  with  such  verbs  as  mean  ab- 
stain, am  devoid  of,  need ;  (b.)  with  verbs  used  transitively,  such  as 
mean  heep  off,  drive  away,  remove,  free,  deprive. 

602.  (1304.)  A  preposition,  ab  or  ex,  is  often  used  with  these  verbs, 
and  regularly  when  the  ablative  denotes  a  person.  But  cared  and  eged, 
and  exsolvo  and  levo,  never  have  a  preposition. 

603.  (1305.)  With  egeo,  the  genitive  is  sometimes  used,  and  often 
with  indiged:  see  594.  Also  in  poetry,  with  verbs  of  abstaining  and 
separating:  see  595. 

604.  (1306.)  The  ablative  of  separation  is  sometimes  used  with  such 
adjectives  as  liber,  nudus,  vacuus,  etc. :  as,  vacui  curis,  devoid  of  cares. 
But  sometimes  the  genitive:  see  573;  sometimes  also  prepositional  con- 
structions. 

605.  (1307.)  Proper  names  of  towns  and  of  little  islands  are 
put  in  the  ablative  with  verbs  of  motion,  to  denote  the  place 
from  which  motion  proceeds:  as, 

136 


The  Noun:  Ablative  [606-612 

Damaratus  fugit  Tarquinios  Corintho,  Damaratus  raft  away  from 
Corinth  to  Tarquinii.  signum  Carthagine  captum,  the  statue  carried  off 
from  Carthage,  hemno,  from  Lemnos.  Roma  acceperam  litteras,  /  had 
got  a  letter  from  Roine. 

606.  (1308.)  In  classical  Latin,  town  names  rarely  have  ab,  and  chiefly 
of  neighborhood  :  as,  ab  Gergovia.,  from  camp  at  Gergovia;  or  regularly 
with  longe:  as,  longe  a  Sjra.cvLsis/far from  Syracuse. 

607.  (1310.)  Country  names  regularly  have  a  preposition: 
as,  e  Cilicia  6.%c%6.^nSj  going  azvay  from  Cilicia, 

608.  (13 1 1.)  The  ablatives  domo  and  rure,  and  in  poetry 
hum5,  are  used  like  proper  names  of  towns  :  as, 

domd  excesserant,  they  had  gone  away  from  home,  rure  redilt  uxor 
mea,  7ny  wife's  cofne  back  from  out  of  town,  vix  oculos  attollit  humo, 
scarce  from  the  ground  her  eyes  she  lifts. 

The  Ablative  of  Source,  Stuff,  or  Material 
6og.  (13 1 2.)  The  verb  nascor  and  participles  of  origin  take 
an  ablative  to  denote  parentage  or  rank  in  life. 

Such  participles  are  :  natus,  prognatus,  and  ortus  ;  in  poetry  and  late 
prose,  also  editus,  genitus,  satus :  as,  summo  loco  natus,  of  high  birth. 
Romulus  deo  prdgnatus,  Romulus,  sprung  fro7n  a  god.  dis  genite,  thou 
sired  of  gods.  Of  a  parent,  ex  is  sometimes  used  :  as,  ex  me  hie  natus 
non  est,  hes  not  my  son;  and  of  remoter  ancestors,  ab.  Rarely  with  de  : 
as,  quo  de  genere  gnatust  Philocrates  ?  what  is  the  pare7ttage  of  Philo- 
crates  ? 

610.  (1314.)  A  substantive  denoting  stuff  or  material  is  generally  put 
in  the  ablative  with  de  or  ex  ;  thus, 

pocula  ex  auro,  cups  of  gold.  Oftener  with  an  auxiliary  verb  or 
participle  :  scutis  ex  cortice  factis,  with  lojig  shields  made  out  of  bark. 

611.  (131 5.)  The  ablative  with  forms  of  facio  and  sum  denotes  that 
with  which  or  to  which  something  is  done  :  as,  quid  hoc  homine  facias  ? 
what  can  you  do  with  such  a  fellow?  quid  me  fiet  ?  what  will  become  of 
me  ? 

The  Ablative  of  Cause,  Influence,  or  Motive 

612.  (13 1 6.)  The  ablative  is  used  to  denote  cause, 
influence,  or  motive :  as, 

premor  liictii,  /  ajn  bowed  down  with  grief,    quod  ego  non  superbia 

137 


6 1 3-6 1 7]      Sentences :   The  Simple  Sentence 

faciebam,  /  did  not  act  thus  from  siiperci'/iousness,  not  I.     lovis  iussu 
venio,  at  Jove's  behest  I  cojne. 

613.  (1 3 1 7.)  Instead  of  the  ablative,  other  constructions  often  occur, 
especially  with  verbs  used  transitively;  such  are: 

Circumlocutions  with  causa,  less  frequently  with  gratia  (570).  Ab- 
latives absolute,  or  participles,  particularly  auxiliary  participles  with  an 
ablative  to  express  cause,  oftener  motive,  such  as  captus,  ductus,  motus, 
perterritus :  as,  nonnulli  pudore  adducti  remanebant,  some  stuck  by  from 
shame. 

614.  (1318.)  The  person  by  whom  the  action  of  a  passive 

verb  is  done,  is  denoted  by  the  ablative  with  ab  or  a  (see  684). 

Things  or  animals  are  sometimes  represented  as  persons  by  the  use 
of  ab :  as,  animus  bene  informatus  a  natura,  a  soul  meetly  fashioned  by 
dame  nature. 

The  Ablative  of  Comparison 
6 1 5-  (1320  f.)  The  ablative  may  be  used  with  a  com- 
parative adjective,  when  the   first   of  two  things  com- 
pared is  in  the  nominative  or  the  accusative. 

Such  an  ablative  is  translated  by  than:  as,  {a.')  liice  sunt  clariora 
nobis  tua  consiiia,  your  schemes  are  plainer  to  us  than  day.  illud  c6- 
gndsces  profecto,  mihl  te  neque  cariorem  neque  iucundiorem  esse  quem- 
quam,  ojie  thing  I  am  sure  you  ivill  see,  that  there  is  nobody  nearer  and 
dearer  to  me  than  you.  hoc  mihl  gratius  facere  nihil  poles,  you  can  do 
nothing  for  me  more  welcome  than  this. 

6x6.  (1322.)  In  poetry,  the  ablative  of  comparison  may  be  used  with 
the  first  member  of  comparison  in  any  case:  as,  Lficlli  ritu,  nostrum 
melioris  utroque,  after  Lucilius's  way,  a  better  man  than  thou  or  I. 

617.  (1324  f.)  The  second  member  of  the  comparison  is 
often  introduced  by  quam,  than.  Both  members  are  then  in 
the  same  case,  or  the  second  is  the  subject  of  a  new  clause  : 

as, 

tii  velim  existimes  neminem  cuiquam  neque  cariorem  neque  iucundiorem 
umquam  fuisse  quam  te  mihl,  /  hope  you  will  be  convinced  that  nobody  was 
ever  nearer  and  dearer  to  anybody  than  you  to  me.  verba  M.  Varronis, 
hominis  quam  fuit  Claudius  doctioris,  the  words  of  Varro,  a  better 
scholar  than  Claudius  ever  was, 

138 


The  Nou n  :  A  blative  [618-623 

618.  (1328.)  Designations  of  number  or  extent  are  often  qualified  by 
amplius,  longius,  or  plus,  over,  or  by  minus,  tinder. 

The  word  thus  qualified  is  put  in  the  case  which  the  context  would 
require  without  any  such  qualification  :  as,  plus  septingenti  capti,  over 
seven  hundred  were  taken  prisoners,  tecum  plus  annum  vixit,  he  lived 
with  you  over  a  year. 

619.  (1330.)  With  a  comparative  adjective  or  adverb,  the  ablatives 
opinione,  exspectatione,  and  spe,  and  some  others,  chiefly  in  poetry,  take 
the  place  of  a  sentence  with  quam :  as,  minora  opinione,  niore  insigfiif- 
icant  than  is  thought,  spe  omnium  serius,  later  than  was  ge?terally  ex- 
pected. 

THE   LOCATIVE 

The  Locative  Proper 

620.  (1331.)  Singular  proper  names  of  towns  and  of 
little  islands  are  put  in  the  locative  to  denote  the  place 
in  or  at  which  action  occurs :  as, 

quid  Romae  faciam?  what  can  I  do  in  Rome?  Rhodi,  at  Rhodes, 
Corinthi  et  Karthagini,  at  Corijtth  and  at  Carthage.  Tiburl,  at  Tibur. 
Compare  624. 

621.  (1337.)  The  locatives  domi,  ruri,  and  humi  are  used 

like  proper  names  of  towns  :  as, 

cenabo  domI,  /  shall  di?ie  at  home,  iacere  humi,  sleeping  oft  bare 
ground. 

622.  (1338  ff.)  The  locatives  belli  and  mllitiae  are  sometimes  used  in 
contrast  with  domi :  as,  domi  bellique,  domi  militiaeque,  at  home  and  in 
the  field.  The  locative  animi,  /;/  soid,  is  often  used  with  verbs  of  sus- 
pense, doubt,  and  distress,  and  with  many  adjectives.  Some  locatives 
denote  time  w^hen  :  as,  heri,  yesterday,  vesperi,  at  evening. 

THE   ABLATIVE    USED   AS   LOCATIVE 
Place  In,  On,  or  At  Which 

623.  (1342.)  Plural  proper  names  of  towns  and  of 
little  islands  are  put  in  the  locative  ablative  to  denote 
the  place  in  or  at  which  action  occurs:  as, 

Athenis  tenue  caelum,  crassum  Thebis,  in  Athens  the  air  is  thin,  at 

139 


624-630]      Sentences:   The  Simple  Sentence 

Thebes  it  is  thick,     locus  ostenditur  Caprels,  the  place  is  pointed  out  at 
Capreae, 

624.  (1343.)  Singular  proper  names  of  towns  with  conso- 
nant stems  are  oftener  put  in  the  locative  ablative  than  in  the 
locative  proper :  as, 

adulescentium  gteges  Lacedaemone  vidimus,  we  have  seen  the  covi- 
panics  of  young  7ncji  in  Lacedaeinon.  Karthagine,  at  Carthage.  Tibure, 
at  Tibur.    Compare  the  examples  under  620. 

625.  (1344.)  A  few  general  appellatives  are  used  in  the  locative  ab- 
lative without  an  attribute,  to  denote  the  place  where :  as,  terra  man- 
que, by  land  and  sea  ;  dextra  Piraeus,  sinistra  Corinthus,  Piraeus  on  the 
right,  Corinth  on  the  left.  So  animo,  animis,  with  verbs  of  feeling :  as, 
angor  animo,  /  am  distressed  in  soul,  or  /  am  heart-broken. 

626.  (1345  f.)  Certain  appellatives,  with  an  attribute,  often  denote  the 
place  where  by  the  locative  ablative ;  so  especially  loco,  locis,  parte, 
partibus  :  as,  inlquo  loco,  on  unsuitable  grou7id.  Substantives  are  often 
used  in  the  locative  ablative  with  totus  in  agreement,  to  denote  the 
place  where :  as,  tota  Gallia,  all  over  Gaul,  totis  trepidatur  castris,  there 
is  a  panic  all  over  the  camp. 

627.  (1347.)  With  country  names  and  most  appellatives,  the 
place  where  is  generally  expressed  by  the  ablative  with  in. 
But  even  without  an  attribute,  the  ablative  alone  is  sometimes 
used,  especially  in  poetry. 

628.  (1348.)  The  locative  ablative  is  sometimes  used  with  such  verbs 
as  teneo  and  recipio :  as,  Ariovistus  exercitum  castris  continuit,  Ario^ 
vistus  kept  his  infantry  in  camp,  oppidls  recipere,  to  receive  inside  their 
towns. 

629.  (1349.)  The  locative  ablative  is  used  with  fido  and  conf Ido,  glo- 
rior,  laetor,  nltor,  and  with  fretus:  as,  barbarl  conflsl  loci  natura  in  acie 
permanserunt,  the  natives,  trusting  in  the  nature  of  their  position,  kept 
their  stand  in  battle  array,  superioribus  victorils  fretl,  relying  on  their 
former  victories. 

Time  at  which  or  Time  within  which 

630.  (1350  f.)  The  locative  ablative  is  used  to  de- 
note the  point  of  time  at  which  action  occurs:  as, 

140 


The  Noun  :  A blative  [631-636 

hieme,  in  the  winter.  Generally  with  an  attribute :  as,  primo  vere, 
zn  the  first  month  of  spring.  Martiis  Kalendls,  tcpon  the  first  of  March. 
proxumis  comitiis,  at  the  last  election.  Especially  substantives  of  action 
in  -tus  or  -sus  :  as,  solis  occasu,  at  sunset,  adventu  in  Galliam  Caesaris, 
at  Caesar  s  arrival  in  Gaul. 

631.  (1352.)  The  locative  ablative  is  used  to  denote  the 
space  of  time  within  which  action  occurs:  as, 

paucis  diebus  opus  efficitur,  the  job  is  finished  up  in  a  few  days,  tri- 
bus  horls  Aduatucam  venire  potestis,  in  three  hours  you  can  get  to  Adua- 
tiica. 

632.  (1353-)  The  ablative  of  the  time  at  or  within  which  action  oc- 
curs is  sometimes  accompanied  by  in:  as,  in  bello,  in  the  war.  Espe- 
cially of  repeated  action,  in  the  sense  of  a  or  every,  with  numerals :  as, 
ter  in  anno,  three  times  a  year. 

633.  (1355)  The  ablative  is  exceptionally  used  to  denote  duration  of 
time:  as,  tota  nocte  continenter  ierunt,  they  we7it  on  and  on  all  night 
without  interruption.     Regularly,  however,  the  accusative  (513). 


THE    INSTRUMENTAL   ABLATIVE 
The  Ablative  of  Accompaniment 

634.  (1356.)  A  few  indefinite  designations  of  military  forces  denote 
accompaniment  by  the  ablative  alone,  or  oftener  with  cum :  as, 

ad  castra  Caesaris  omnibus  copiis  contenderunt,  they  marched  upon 
Caesar  s  ca7tip  with  all  their  forces,  is  civitati  persuasit,  ut  cum  omni- 
bus copiis  exirent,  well,  this  man  induced  the  commimity  to  emigrate  in  a 
body,  bag  and  baggage. 

The  Ablative  of  Manner 

^35-  (1358.)  Certain  substantives  without  an  attribute  are  put  in  the 
ablative  alone  to  denote  manner ;  but  usually  substantives  without  an 
attribute  have  cum. 

Such  adverbial  ablatives  are  iiire  and  iniuria,  silentio,  ordine,  sponte, 
etc. :  as,  Aratus  iiire  laudatur,  Aratus  is  justly  admired,  iniuria  suspec- 
tum,  wro7igfully  suspected,  silentio  egressus,  going  out  in  silence.  With 
cum  :  cum  virtiite  vivere,  to  live  virtuously. 

636.  (1359)  The  ablative  of  a  substantive  with  an  attribute 
is  often  used  to  denote  manner,  sometimes  with  cum:  as, 

141 


637-640]     Sente7tces:   The  Simple  Sentence 

"indoctus"  dicimus  brevl  prima  littera,  "insanus"  producta,  "  in- 
huraanus"  brevi,  "infellx  "  longa,  we  pronoimce  indoctus  with  the  first 
letter  short,  Insanus  ivith  it  long,  inhumanus  with  it  short,  infelix  with  it 
long,  terno  consurgunt  ordine  remi,  with  triple  bank  each  time  in  concert 
rise  the  oars.  Allobroges  magna  cum  cura  suos  fines  tuentur,  the  AllO' 
brogans  guard  their  own  territory  with  great  care. 

637.  (1360.)  With  a  substantive  meaning  way  or  manner,  as  raodo, 
ritu,  etc.,  feeling  or  intention,  as  hac  mente,  aequo  animo,  condition,  as 
ea  condicione,  or  a  part  of  the  body,  as  in  nudo  capite,  bareheaded,  cum 
is  not  used. 

The  Ablative  Absolute 

638.  (1362.)  The  ablative  of  a  substantive,  with  a 
predicate  participle  in  agreement,  is  used  to  denote  an 
attendant  circumstance  of  an  action. 

In  this  construction,  which  is  called  the  Ablative  Absolute,  the  pres- 
ent participle  is  sometimes  used  :  as,  nullo  hoste  prohibente  incolumem 
legionem  in  Nantuatis  perduxit,  with  no  enemy  hindering,  he  conducted 
the  legion  in  safety  to  the  Nantuates,  Much  oftener,  however,  the  per- 
fect participle  :  as,  hoc  responso  dato  discessit,  this  answer  given  he  went 
away. 

639»  (1365.)  The  ablative  of  a  substantive,  with  a  predicate 
noun  in  agreement,  is  often  used  to  denote  an  attendant  cir- 
cumstance of  an  action  :  as, 

brevitatem  secutus  sum  te  magistro,  /  aimed  at  brevity  with  you  as  a 
teacher,    natus  dis  inimicis,  born  under  wrath  of  gods, 

640.  (1367.)  The  ablative  absolute  may  denote  in  a  loose 
way  various  relations  which  might  be  more  distinctly  ex- 
pressed by  subordinate  sentences. 

So  particularly:  Time:  as,  terti§.  inita  vigilia  exercitum  educit,  at 
the  beginning  of  the  third  watch  he  leads  the  army  out.  Cause  or  means  : 
as,  C.  Flaminium  Caelius  rSligione  neglScti  cecidisse  apud  Tr&sumenum 
scrlbit,  Caelius  writes  that  I'laminius  fell  at  Trasumcnc  in  consequence 
of  his  neglect  of  religious  observances.  Concession  :  as,  id  paucis  defen- 
dentibus  expugnare  non  potuit,  though  the  dtfenders  were  fc^u,  he  could 
not  take  it  by  storm.  Condition :  as,  quae  potest  esse  vitae  iucunditas  sub- 
latis  amicitiis  ?  what  pleasure  can  there  be  in  life,  if  you  take  friendships 

142 


The  Noun  :  Ablative  [641-645 

away  ?     Description  :  as,  domum  venit  capite  obvoluto,  he  came  home 
with  his  head  all  muffled  up, 

641.  (1369.)  The  substantive  of  the  ablative  absolute  usually  denotes 
a  different  person  or  thing  from  any  in  the  main  sentence.  But  excep- 
tions to  this  usage  sometimes  occur  :  as,  quibus  auditis,  eos  domum  re- 
mittit,  after  listening  to  these  men,  he  sends  them  home  again. 

642.  (1372.)  The  ablative  neuter  of  some  perfect  participles  is  used 
impersonally :   as,    auspicato,  with  auspices  taken,     sortito,  lots  being 

drawn,  or  by  lot. 

The  Ablative  of  Quality 

643.  (1375.)  The  ablative  with  an  adjective  in  agreement 
or  with  a  limiting  genitive  is  used  to  denote  quality,  either 
predicatively  or  attributively:  as, 

Predicatively  :  capilld  sunt  promisso,  they  have  long  hair  or  let  their 
hair  grow  long,  ad  flumen  Genusum,  quod  ripis  erat  impeditis,  to  the  river 
Genusus,  which  had  impracticable  batiks.  Attributively :  difficili  transitu 
fliimen  rlplsque  praeruptis,  a  river  hard  to  cross  afid  with  steep  banks. 
bos  cervi  figura,  ati  ox  with  the  shape  of  a  stag.  Compare  the  genitive 
of  quality  (558). 

The  Ablative  of  the  Route  Taken 

644.  (1376.)  The  instrumental  ablative  is  used  with  verbs 
of  motion  to  denote  the  route  taken:  as, 

Aurelia  via  profectus  est,  he  has  gone  off  by  the  Aurelia  Road,  omni- 
bus viis  semitisque  essedarios  ex  silvis  emittebat,  he  kept  sending  his 
chariot  men  out  by  all  possible  highways  and  byways,  frumentum  Tiber! 
venit,  so7Jte  grain  cajne  by  the  Tiber. 

THE  INSTRUMENTAL  PROPER 
The  Ablative  of  Instrument  or  Means 

645.  (1377.)  The  ablative  is  used  to  denote  the  in- 
strument or  means:  as, 

lacte  et  came  vivunt,  pellibusque  sunt  vestiti,  they  live  on  milk  and 
meat,  and  they  are  clad  in  skins,  contentus  paucis  lectoribus,  content 
with  readers  few.  centenaque  arbore  fluctum  verberat,  atid  with  an 
himdred  beams  at  every  stroke  the  wave  he  smites.  Rarely  the  ablative 
of  a  person,  the  person  being  then  regarded  as  a  thing  :  as,  iacent  suis 
testibus,  they  are  cast  by  their  own  witnesses. 

143 


646-651]      Sentences:  The  Simple  Sentence 

646.  (1379  f.)  The  instrumental  ablative  is  used  with  the 
five  deponents  fruor,  fungor,  potior,  utor,  vescor,  and  several 
of  their  compounds,  and  with  usus  est  and  opus  est:  as, 

pace  numquam  fruemur,  we  never  shall  enjoy  ourselves  with  peace,  \.  e. 
we  never  shall  enjoy  peace,  fungar  vice  cotis,  I'll  play  the  whetstone  s 
part,  castris  nostri  potiti  sunt,  our  people  made  themselves  masters  of 
the  camp,  vestra  opera  utar,  /  will  avail  myself  of  your  services,  came 
vescor,  /  live  on  meat,  opust  chlamyde,  there  is  a  job  with  a  cloak,  i.  e. 
we  need  a  cloak,    potior  often  has  the  genitive  (593). 

647.  (1381.)  utor  often  has  a  second  predicative  ablative:  as,  facili 
me  iitetur  patre,  an  easy-going  father  he  will  find  in  me. 

648.  (i  382.)  usus  est  and  opus  6st  sometimes  take  a  neuter  participle: 
as,  viso  opust  cautost  opus,  there's  need  of  sight,  there's  need  of  care. 

649.  (1383.)  With  opus  est,  the  thing  wanted  is  often  made  the  sub- 
ject nominative  or  subject  accusative,  with  opus  in  the  predicate:  as, 
dux  nobis  et  auctor  opus  est,  we  need  a  leader  and  adviser.  Usually  so 
when  the  thing  needed  is  a  neuter  adjective  or  neuter  pronoun:  as, 
multa  sibf  opus  esse,  that  he  needed  much. 


The  Ablative  of  Specification 

650.  (1385.)  The  instrumental  ablative  is  used  to  denote 
that  in  respect  of  which  an  assertion  or  a  term  is  to  be  taken : 
as, 

Helvetii  reliquos  Gallos  virtiite  praecedunt,  the  Helvetians  outdo  the 
rest  of  the  Kelts  in  bravery,  hi  omnes  lingua,  institutls,  legibus  inter  s€ 
differunt,  these  people  all  dijfer  from  each  other  in  language,  usages,  and 
laws. 

The  Ablative  of  Fulness 

651.  (1386.)  The  instrumental  ablative  is  used  with  verbs 
of  abounding,  filling,  and  furnishing:  as, 

villa  abundat  porco,  haedo,  agno,  the  country  place  is  running  over 
with  swine,  kid,  and  lamb,  totum  montem  hominibus  compleri  iussit, 
he  gave  orders  for  the  whole  mountain  to  be  covered  over  with  men.  c6n- 
sulari  imperid  praeditus,  vested  with  the  authority  of  consul.  For  the 
genitive  with  compleo  and  impleo,  see  594. 

144 


The  Noun:  Ablative  [65-~657 


The  Ablative  of  Measure,  Exchange,  and  Price 

652.  (1388.)  The  instrumental  ablative  is  used  with  verbs 
of  measuring  and  of  exchanging,  and  in  expressions  of  value 
and  price :  as, 

quod  magnds  homines  virtute  metimur,  because  we  gauge  great  men  by 
their  merit.  nem5  nisi  victor  pace  bellum  miitavit,  nobody  except  a  con- 
queror has  ever  exchanged  war  for  peace,  haec  signa  sestertium  sex  mili- 
bus  quingentis  esse  vendita,  that  these  statues  were  sold  for  sixty-five 
hundred  sesterces. 

653.  (1 391.)  The  ablatives  thus  used  are  (^.)  those  of  general  sub- 
stantives of  value  and  price,  such  as  pretium,  {b.)  numerical  designa- 
tions of  money,  or  {c.)  neuter  adjectives  of  quantity,  mag^o,  permagno, 
parvo,  minimo :  as,  mag^no  decumas  vendidi,  /  sold  the  tithes  at  a  high 
figure.     For  tanti  and  quanti,  pluris  and  minoris,  see  578. 

654.  (1392.)  The  ablative   is  also   used   with   dignus   and 

indignus:  as, 

digni  maiorum  loco,  well  worthy  of  the  high  standing  of  their  ancestors. 
niilla  vox  est  audita  populi  Romani  maiestate  indlg^na,  not  a  word  was 
heard  out  of  keeping  with  the  grandeur  of  Rome. 

The  Ablative  of  the  Amount  of  Difference 

655.  (1393.)  The  instrumental  ablative  is  used  to 
denote  the  amount  of  difference. 

This  ablative  is  used  with  any  words  whatever  of  comparative  or  of 
superlative  meaning :  as,  uno  die  longiorem  mensem  faciunt  aut  biduo, 
they  make  the  month  longer  by  a  day,  or  even  by  two  days.  bidu5  post,  two 
days  after,  paucls  ante  diebus,  a  few  days  ago.  multo  maxima  pars, 
the  largest  part  by  far. 

656.  (1394)  In  expressions  of  time,  the  accusative  is  sometimes  used 
with  post,  less  frequently  with  ante,  as  prepositions,  instead  of  the  abla- 
tive of  difference  :  as,  post  paucos  dies,  after  a  few  days,  post  diem  ter- 
tium,  after  the  third  day,  according  to  the  Roman  way  of  reckoning,  i.  e. 
the  next  day  but  one. 

657.  (^395-)  When  the  time  before  or  after  which  anything  occurs  is 
denoted  by  a  substantive,  the  substantive  is  put  in  the  accusative  with 

K  145 


658-664]     Se7itences :   The  Simple  Sentence 

ante  or  post :  as,  paulo  ante  tertiam  vigiliam,  a  little  before  the  third 
watch,     biduo  ante  victoriam,  the  day  but  one  before  the  victory. 

658.  (1397.)  When  the  time  before  or  after  which  anything  occurs 
is  denoted  by  a  sentence,  the  sentence  maybe  introduced  by  quam :  as, 
post  diem  tertium  gesta  res  est  quam  dlxerat,  it  took  place  two  days  after 
he  said  it. 


USE  OF  CASES  WITH  PREPOSITIONS 

^59'  (HIO-)  The  accusative  is  accompanied  by  the  follow- 
ing prepositions: 

ad,  to,  adversus  or  adversum,  towards,  against,  ante,  before,  apud, 
near,  at,  circa,  circum,  circiter,  round,  about,  cis,  citra,  this  side  of,  contra, 
opposite  to,  erga,  towards,  extra,  outside,  infra,  below,  inter,  between,  intra, 
within,  iuxta,  7tear,  ob,  against,  penes,  in  the  possession  of,  per,  through, 
pone,  post,  behind,  praeter,  past,  prope  (propius,  proxime),  propter,  near, 
secundum,  after,  subter,  under,  supra,  above,  trans,  across,  ultra,  beyond. 

660.  (141 1.)  Prepositions  which  accompany  the  accusative 
may  be  easily  remembered  in  this  order: 

ante,  apud,  ad,  adversum, 
circum,  cis,  ob,  trans,  secundum, 
penes,  pone,  prope,  per, 
post,  and  all  in  -a  and  -ter. 

661.  (141 3.)  The  substantive  forms  pridie,  the  day  before,  and  postri- 
die,  the  day  after,  are  sometimes  used  with  an  accusative  like  preposi- 
tions to  denote  dates :  as,  pridie  nonas  Maias,  the  day  before  the  nones 
of  May,  i.e.  6  May.     For  the  genitive  with  these  words,  see  553. 

662.  (141 7.)  The  ablative  is  accompanied  by  the  following 
prepositions  : 

abs,  ab,  or  VL^from,  corsLm^face  to  face,  de,  down  from,  from,  of  ex  or 
e,  out  of  prae,  at  the  fore,  in  front  of,  pro,  before,  cum,  with,  sine,  with- 
out, 

663.  (141 8.)  Prepositions  which  accompany  the  ablative 
may  be  easily  remembered  in  this  order: 

abs  (ab,  a),  cum,  c5ram,  de, 
prae,  prd,  sine,  ex  (or  e). 

664.  (1420.)  tenus,  the  lemrth,  originally  a  substantive  accusative  (5 1 3), 

146 


The  Noun :  Adverbs  [665-670 

is  sometimes  used  as  a  preposition  vvitli  the  ablative,  and  standing  after 
its  case:  as,  Tauro  tenus,  not  further  than  Taurus,  hactenus,  thus  far, 
otily  thus  far.  Also,  as  a  real  substantive,  with  a  genitive :  as,  Cumarum 
tenus,  as  far  as  Cutnae. 

665.  (142 1.)  The  adverbs  palam,  in  presence  of,  procul,  apart  from, 
either  near  or  far,  simul,  with,  are  rarely  used  in  poetry  and  late  prose 
as  prepositions  with  the  ablative. 

666.  (1423.)  in  and  sub  accompany  the  accusative  of  the 
end  of  motion,  the  locative  ablative  of  rest:  as, 

in  curiam  venimus,  we  went  to  the  senate-house,  hic  pagus  eius  exer- 
citum  sub  iugum  miserat,  this  ca7iton  had  sent  his  army  under  the  yoke. 
erimus  in  castrls,  we  shall  be  in  camp,  viridi  membra  sub  arbuto  stratus, 
stretched  out — his  li?nbs — all  under  an  arbute  green. 

667.  (1425.)  super  accompanies  the  ablative  when  it  has  colloquially 
the  sense  of  de,  about,  in  refere7ice  to:  as,  hac  super  re  scrlbam  ad  te 
Regio,  Til  write  you  about  this  from  Regium.  \x\  other  senses,  the  ac- 
cusative is  usual. 

Position  of  Prepositions 

668.  (1433  fT.)  In  general  a  preposition  precedes  its  case;  but  disylla- 
bic prepositions  sometimes  follow.  With  a  personal  or  a  reflexive  pro- 
noun, cum  regularly  follows,  as  mecura,  nobiscum,  secum  ;  also  often  with 
a  relative  :  as,  quibuscum. 


USE   OF   ADVERBS 

669.  (1438.)  Adverbs  qualify  verbs,  adjectives,  or 
adverbs:  as, 

Ubii  magnopere  orabant,  the  Ubians  earnestly  entreated,  bene  quievit, 
libenter  cibum  sumpsit,  he  has  slept  beautifully ,  he  has  relished  his  food. 
egregie  fortis,  exceptionally  brave. 

670.  (1439)  An  adverb  is  sometimes  used  with  the  meaning  of  an 
adjective :  as,  reliquis  deinceps  diebus,  the  retftainittg  successive  days. 
Particularly  when  the  substantive  expresses  character,  like  an  adjec- 
tive :  rusticanus  vir,  sed  plane  vir,  a  country  man,  but  every  inch  a  man. 
Other  substantives  also  may  be  qualified  by  an  adverb,  when  a  verb 
construction  or  a  participle  is  implied :  as,  C.  Flaminius  consul  iterum, 
Flaminius  in  his  second  co7isulship. 

147 


6  7 1  -6  7  7  ]      Sentences :  The  Simple  Sen tence 

Negative  Adverbs 

671.  (1443.)  The  negative  oftenest  used  in  declaration  or 
interrogation  is  non,  not. 

672.  (1445.)  The  conjunction  neque  or  nee  is  used  for  and  not,  but 
not,  unless  a  single  word  is  to  be  emphasized  or  contrasted:  as,  neque 
abest  susplcio,  and  the  suspicion  is  not  wanting. 

673.  (1447.)  ne  usually  introduces  an  imperative  or  a  subjunctive,  as 
will  be  explained  further  on.  But  ne  is  also  used  in  the  combination 
ne  .  .  .  quidem,  not  even,  not  .  .  .  either,  with  the  emphatic  word  between 
ne  and  quidem:  as,  ne  tum  quidem,  not  even  theft. 

674.  (1449.)  The   negative   haud,  not,   is   used   principally 

vi^ith  adjectives  and  adverbs,  less  frequently  with  verbs:  as, 

rem  haud  sane  difficilem,  a  thing  not  particularly  hard,  haud  procul, 
not  far.  It  occurs  here  and  there  with  a  few  verbs,  but  is  principally- 
confined  to  scio,  in  the  combination  haud  scio  an,  /  doiit  know  but. 

675.  (1452.)  Two  negatives  in  the  same  sentence  are  usually 
equivalent  to  an  afifirmative. 

Thus,  with  non  first,  an  indefinite  affirmative  :  as,  non  nemo,  somebody^ 
non  nihil,  something,  non  numquam,  sometimes.  With  non  second,  a  uni- 
versal affirmative  :  as,  nemo  non,  everybody,  every  human  being,  nihil 
non,  every  thing,  numquam  non,  always,  non  possum  non  confiteri,  / 
must  con/ess.     nem5  ignorat,  everybody  knows.     But  see  762. 


USE  OF  DEGREES  OF  COMPARISON 
The  Comparative 

676.  (145$.)  When  two  things  only  are  compared,  the  com- 
parative is  used  :  as, 

uter  igitur  melior  ?  which  of  the  two  then  is  the  l)etter  ? 

677.  (1457.)  An  adjective  or  adverb  is  sometimes  compared  with  an- 
other adjective  or  adverb.     In  such  comparisons  quam  is  always  used. 

In  this  case:  Both  members  may  have  the  positive  form,  the  first 
with  magis:  as,  Celer  disertus  magis  est  quam  sapiens,  Celer  is  more 
eloquent  than  wise.  Both  members  may  have  the  comparative  suffix: 
as,  pestilentia  minacior  quam  pernicidsior,  a  plague  more  alarming  than 
destructive. 

148 


The  Verb:    Voice  [678-683 

678.  (1460.)  The   comparative    of  an    adjective   or  adverb 

often  denotes  that  which  is  more  than  usual  or  more  than  is 

right :  as, 

senectus  est  natura  loquacior,  age  is  naturally  rather  gar?-ulous. 
stomachabatur  senex,  si  quid  asperius  dixeram,  the  old ge?itlemati  always 
got  provoked  if  I  said  afiy thing  a  bit  rough. 

The  Superlative 

679.  (1466.)  The  superlative  may  be  strengthened  by  the  addition  of 
such  words  as  iinus,  preeminently,  usually  with  a  genitive,  maxime,  quam, 
with  or  without  a  form  of  possum,  as  possible,  etc.,  etc.  (869),  or  by  longe, 
far,  and  vel,  perhaps,  even  :  as, 

confirmaverim  rem  unam  esse  omnium  di£ficillimam,  I  am  not  afraid  to 
avouch  it  is  the  07ie  hardest  thmg  in  the  world,  longe  nobilissimus,  the 
man  of  highest  birth  by  far.  quam  maximis  potest  itineribus  in  Galliam 
contendit,  he  pushes  into  Gaul  by  the  quickest  marches  he  can.  quam  ma- 
turrime,  as  early  as  possible. 

680.  (1467.)  The  superlative  is  also  used  to  denote  a  very  high  degree 
of  the  quality,  and  may  then  be  translated  by  the  positive  with  some 
such  word  as  most,  very:  as,  homo  turpissimus,  an  utterly  unprincipled 

man, 

^ 

(B.)     USE    OF   THE  VERB 


VOICE 

The  Active  Voice 

681.  (1469.)  In  the  active  voice,  the  subject  is  rep- 
resented as  performing  the  action  of  the  verb. 

682.  (147 1.)  The  active  of  one  verb  sometimes  serves  as  the  passive 
of  another:  thus,  pereo, ^<7  to  destruction,  die,  serves  as  the  passive  of 
perdo,  destroy.  Similarly  fio,  become,  am  made,  is  used  in  the  present 
system  as  the  passive  of  facio,  make. 

The  Passive  Voice 

683.  (1472.)  In  the  passive  voice,  the  subject  is  rep- 
resented as  acted  upon. 

149 


684-69 1  ]      Sentences :   The  Simple  Sentence 

684.  (1476.)  The  person  by  whom  the  action  is  done  is  put 

in  the  ablative  with  ab  or  a  (614)  ;  the  thing  by  which  it  is 

done  is  put  in  the  instrumental  ablative  (645):  as, 

non  numquam  latro  a  viatore  occiditur,  once  in  a  ivhile  the  robber  gets 
killed  by  the  wayfarer,  unius  virl  prudentia  Graecia  liberata  est,  Greece 
was  saved  from  slavery  by  the  sagacity  of  a  single  man. 

685.  (1478.)  Sometimes  the  person  by  whom  the  action  is  done  is  in- 
dicated by  the  dative  of  the  possessor:  see  545.  And  regularly  with  the 
gerund  and  gerundive  construction  (991). 

686.  (1479.)  Only  verbs  of  transitive  use  have  ordinarily  a 

complete  passive.     Verbs  of  intransitive  use  have  only  the 

impersonal  forms  of  the  passive:  as, 

diu  atque  acriter  pugnatum  est,  there  was  long  and  sharp  fighting. 
mihf  quidem  persuader!  numquam  potuit  animos  emori,  for  my  part,  I 
tiever  could  be  convinced  that  the  soul  becomes  extinct  at  death. 

687.  (1481.)  The  passive  had  originally  a  reflexive  meaning,  which  is 
still  to  be  seen  in  the  passive  of  many  verbs:  as,  exercebatur  plurimum 
currendo  et  luctando,  he  took  a  great  deal  of  exercise  in  running  and 
wrestliftg.  densos  fertur  in  hostis,  he  tries  to  charge  upon  the  serried 
foes. 

688.  (1483.)  Passive  forms  of  coepi  are  commonly  used  in  the  per- 
fect system,  when  a  dependent  infinitive  is  passive:  as,  litteris  oratio  est 
coepta  mandari,  oratory  began  to  be  put  in  black  and  white. 

Deponents 

689.  (i486.)  Many  verbs  have  only  passive  inflec- 
tions, but  with  the  meaning  of  active  inflections.  Such 
verbs  are  called  Deponents  (353). 

690.  (1487.)  In  many  deponents,  a  reflexive,  passive,  or  reciprocal 
action  is  still  clearly  to  be  seen  :  as,  nascor,  am  born,-  moror,  delay  my- 
self, get  delayed;  utor,  avail  myself;  amplectimur,  we  hug  each  other. 

691.  (1491.)  When  it  is  desirable  to  express  the  passive  of  a  deponent, 
a  synonyme  is  sometimes  used  :  thus,  the  passive  of  miror,  admire,  may 
sometimes  be  represented  by  lAudor,  am  praised.  Or  some  circumlocu- 
tion :  as.  familia  in  susplcion^m  est  vocata,  the  household  was  suspected, 
as  passive  of  suspicor. 

150 


The  Verb  :   Mood  [692-696 

MOOD 


The  Indicative    Mood 

Declarations 

692.  (1493.)  The  indicative  mood  is  used  in  absolute 
declarations:  as, 

arma  virumque  cano,  arms  and  the  man  I  szng.  leve  fit  quod  bene  fer- 
tur  onus,  light  gets  the  load  that's  bravely  bor?ie. 

693.  (1495.)  Certain  verbs  and  verbal  expressions  denoting 

ability,  duty,  propriety,  necessity,  and  the   like,  mostly  with 

an  infinitive,  are  regularly  put  in  the  indicative,  even  when 

the  action  of  the  infinitive  is  not  performed. 

This  appHes  to  declarations,  questions,  or  exclamations  :  as,  possum 
de  ichneumonum  utilitate  dicere,  sed  nolo  esse  longus,  /  might  expatiate 
on  the  usefulness  of  the  ichneumon,  but  I  do  not  care  to  be  long-winded. 
quid  enim  facere  poteramus  ?  for  what  else  could  we  have  done?  licuit 
uxorem  genere  summo  ducere,  /  might  have  7narried  a  wife  of  high  de- 
gree, quanto  melius  fuerat  promissum  patris  non  esse  servatum,  how 
much  better  it  would  have  been  for  the  father's  word  not  to  have  been  kept. 

694.  (1496.)  The  principal  verbs  and  verbal  expressions  thus  used 
are  :  {a)  possum,  licet,  debeo,  oportet.  (^.)  aequum,  necesse  est ;  utilius, 
melius  est;  facile,  difficile,  longum,  magnum  est;  est  with  the  predica- 
tive genitive,  or  a  possessive  pronoun  (557.) 

Questions 

695.  (1499.)  The  indicative  is  the  mood  ordinarily 
used  in  inquiries  and  in  exclamations  :  as, 

(rtr.)  huic  ego  "  studes  ?  "  inquam.  respondit  "  etiam."  **ubi?"  "  Me- 
di51ani."     **cur  non  hic?"   "quia    nuUos    hie  praeceptores  habemus," 

said  I  to  the  boy,  ''  do  you  go  to  school?"  ''yes,  sir,''  said  he;  '' where?" 
"  at  Mediolanum  "/  ''why  not  here?"  "oh  because  we  haven't  any  teachers 
here." 

696.  (1 501.)  There  are  two  kinds  of  questions:  (i.)  Such  questions  as 
call  for  the  answer  jj/^j  or  no  in  English:  as,  is  he  gone?  These  may 
conveniently  be  called  Yes  or  No  Questions,    (2.;)  Questions  introduced 

151 


697-703]      Sentences:   The  Simple  Sentience 

by  an  interrogative  pronoun,  or  by  a  word  derived  from  an  interroga- 
tive pronoun  :  as,  who  is  gone?  where  is  he?  These  are  called  Pronoun 
Questions. 

Yes  or  No  Questions 

697.  (1502.)  Yes  or  No  questions  are  sometimes  put  without  any  in- 
terrogative particle  :  as,  huic  ego  '*  studes  ?  "  inquam,  said  I  to  the  boy. 
"  do  you  go  to  school?"  Especially  with  non:  as,  patere  tua  consilia  non 
sentis  ?  you  don't  see  that  your  schemes  are  out  ? 

698.  (1503.)  Yes  or  No  questions  are  usually  introduced  by 
one  of  the  interrogative  particles  -ne,  nonne,  num,  an. 

699.  (1504.)  A  question  with  -ne  may  inquire  simply,  or  it  may  either 
expect  an  affirmative  answer  like  nonne,  or  less  frequently  a  negative 
answer  like  num:  as, 

vivuntne?  are  they  alive?  facitne  ut  dixl?  isnt  he  acting  as  I  said? 
quid,  mundum  praeter  hunc  umquamne  vidisti  ?  negabis,  tell  me,  did  you 
ever  see  any  universe  except  this  one  ?  you  will  say  no. 

700.  (1506,)  To  a  question  with  nonne,  a  positive  answer  is  usually 
expected:  as,  nonne  meministi?  :  :  memini  vero,  don  t you  remember?  :  : 

oh  yes. 

701.  (1507.)  To  a  question  with  num  a  negative  answer  is  generally 
expected  :  as,  num  negare  audes  ?  do  you  undertake  to  deny  it  ? 

702.  (1508.)  A  question  with  an  usually  challenges  or  comments  em- 
phatically on  something  previously  expressed  or  implied  :  as, 

an  habent  quas  galllnae  manus  ?  what,  what,  do  hens  have  hands  ?  an 
is  also  particularly  common  in  argumentative  language,  in  anticipating, 
criticising,  or  refuting  an  opponent:  as,  quid  dicis  ?  an  bello  Siciliam 
virtute  tua  liberatam  ?  what  do  you  say  ?  possibly  that  it  was  by  your 
prowess  that  Sicily  was  rid  of  the  war  ? 

Positive  and  Negative  Answers 

703.  (1511  f.)  There  are  no  two  current  Latin  words  corresponding 
exactly  with  j^j  and  no  in  answers.  A  positive  answer  is  expressed  by 
some  emphatic  word  of  the  question,  repeated  with  such  change  as  the 
context  may  require  :  as, 

an  non  dixi  esse  hoc  futurum  ? :  :  dixtl,  didn't  I  say  that  this  would 
be?  :  :  you  did.  The  repeated  word  may  be  emphasized  by  sane  vero: 
as,  dasne  manere  animos  post  mortem  ?  :  :  do  vero,  do  you  grant  that  the 
soul  lives  on  after  death  ?  :  :  oh  yes.     Often,  however,  adverbs  are  used, 

152 


The  Verb:  Mood  [704-708 

without  the  repetition,  such  as  certe,  etiam,  ita  vero,  sane,  scilicet,  oh 
of  course,  vero. 

704.  (1 513.)  A  negative  answer  is  expressed  by  a  similar  repetition, 
with  non  or  some  other  negative  added:  as, 

estne  frater  intus  ?  :  :  non  est,  is  brother  in  ?  :  :  he's  not.  Or,  with- 
out repetition,  by  such  words  as  non  minime,  minime  vero. 

Alternative  Questions 

705.  (1 5 19.)  Of  two  alternative  questions,  the  first  is  commonly  intro- 
duced by  utrum,  or  -ne.  The  second  is  introduced  by  an,  or  if  it  is  neg- 
ative, by  an  non :  as, 

utrum  libentes  an  inviti  dabant  ?  did  they  offer  7wluntarily  or  did  they 
consetit  to  give  under  stress  ?  servusne  es  an  liber  ?  art  bond  or  free  ? 
videone  Cliniam  an  non  }  do  I  see  Clinia  or  not  ? 

Pronoun  Questions 

706.  (1526.)  Pronoun  questions  or  exclamations  are  intro- 
duced by  interrogative  pronouns,  or  words  of  pronoun  origin. 

Such  words  are :  (^.)  quis  qui,  uter,  qualis,  quantus,  quotus  :  quid 
rides?  why  dost  thou  laugh?  hora  quota  est?  what's  o'clock?  (b.)  Or 
unde,  ubf,  quo,  cur,  qui  ablative,  how,  quin,  why  not,  quam,  how :  as,  unde 
venis  et  quo  tendis  ?  whence  dost  thou  come,  and  whither  art  thou  bound? 
deus  falli  qui  potuit  ?  how  could  a  god  have  been  taken  in  ? 


The    Infinitive    of    Intimation 

707*  (1 534-)  The  infinitive  is  principally  used  in  subordination,  and 
will  be  spoken  of  under  that  head.  One  use,  however,  of  the  present 
infinitive  in  main  sentences,  as  a  kind  of  substitute  for  a  past  indicative, 
requires  mention  here. 

708.  (1535.)  ^^"^  animated  narration,  the  present  in- 
finitive with  a  subject  in  the  nominative  sometimes 
takes  the  place  of  the  imperfect  or  perfect  indicative: 
as, 

interim  cotidie  Caesar  Aedu5s  frumentum  fiagitare,  there  was  Caesar 
meantime  every  day  dunning  and  dwming  the  Aeduans  for  the  grain. 
interea  Catilina  in  prima  acieversari,  laborantibus  succurrere,  Catiline 

153 


7 09  -  7 1 4 ]      -^^'^  tences :  The  Simple  Sen  ience 

meantime  bustling  round  in  the  forefront  of  battle,  helping  them  that 
were  sore  bestead, 

709.  (1536.)  This  infinitive  is  used  to  sketch  or  outline  persistent, 
striking,  or  portentous  action,  where  description  fails;  and  as  it  merely 
intimates  the  action,  without  distinct  declaration,  and  without  notation 
of  time,  number,  or  person,  it  is  called  the  Infiniti7>e  of  Intimation. 
Many  call  it  the  Historical  Infinitive.  It  cannot  be  adequately  repre- 
sented in  English. 

The   Subjunctive   Mood 

I.      THE  SUBJUNCTIVE  OF  DESIRE 
(A.)  Wish 

710.  (1540.)  The  subjunctive  may  be  used  to  ex- 
press a  wish. 

Wishes  are  often  introduced  by  utinam.  In  negative  wishes,  ne  is 
used. 

711.  (1541.)  The  present  represents  a  wish  as  practicable: 
as, 

utinam  ilium  diem  videam,  /  hope  I  may  see  the  day.  utinam  neges,  / 
wish  you  would  deny  it. 

'j\i,  (1544.)  The  imperfect  represents  a  wish  as  hopeless  in 
the  present  or  immediate  future,  the  pluperfect  represents  it 
as  unfulfilled  in  the  past:  as, 

utinam  ego  tertius  vobis  amicus  adscrlberer,  would  that  I  could  be  en- 
rolled with  you  myself,  as  the  third  friend,  utinam  me  mortuum  prius 
vidisses,  /  wish  you  had  seen  me  dead  first. 

(B.)  Exhortation,  Direction 

713.  (1547.)  The  subjunctive  may  be  used  to  express 
an  exhortation  or  a  direction.     The  usual  negative  is  ne. 

714.  (1548.)  The  present  expresses  what  is  to  be  done  or  is 
not  to  be  done  in  the  future:  as, 

considamus  hie  in  umbra,  let  us  sit  down  here  in  the  shade,  ne  difficilia 
optemus,  let  us  not  hanker  after  impossibilities,   isto  bono  utare,  dum  adsit, 

154 


The  Verb:  Mood  [715-720 

enjoy  this  blessing  while  yoii  have  it  with  you.  nomina  declinare  et  verba 
in  primis  pueri  sciant,  first  a7id foremost  boys  are  to  k?tow  how  to  itifiect 
nouns  and  verbs. 

715.  (1 551.)  In  prohibitions,  tlie  second  person  singular  of  the  pres- 
ent or  perfect  is  sometimes  employed:  as, 

ne  ilium  verberes,  j^z/r  mustnt  thrash  the  man.  ne  transierjs  Iberum, 
do  not  cross  the  Iberus.  But  noli  with  the  infinitive  or  cavS  with  the 
subjunctive  is  commoner;  see  729. 

(C.)  Willingness,  Concession 

716.  (1553.)  The  subjunctive  of  desire  may  be  used  to  de- 
note willingness  or  concession  :  as, 

oderint  dum  metuant,  they  are  welcome  to  hate,  as  long  as  they  fear. 
ne  sit  sane  summum  malum  dolor,  malum  certe  est,  grant  that  pain  is 
not  the  worst  evil,  an  evil  it  certainly  is. 


II.     THE  SUBJUNCTIVE  OF  ACTION  CONCEIVABLE 

717.  (1554.)  The  subjunctive  is  often  used  to  repre- 
sent action  as  conceivable,  without  asserting  that  it  ac- 
tually takes  place.     The  negative  is  non. 

718.  (1556  ff.)  The  present  and  perfect  are  commonly  used 

alike,  denoting  action  in  an  indefinite  future  :  as, 

Fortiinam  citius  reperias  quam  retineas,  dame  Fortune  thotc  mayst  soon- 
er find  thatt  bind,  forsitan  dX\Q^\s  ^xc^X^  perhaps  somebody  may  say.  non 
facile  dixerim,  /  could  not  readily  say.  tu  vero  eum  nee  nimis  valde 
umquam  nee  nimis  saepe  laudaverls,  oh  no,  rest  assured  you  never  can 
praise  him  too  emphatically  nor  too  often. 

Ti^.  (1555)  This  subjunctive  is  particularly  common  in  guarded  or 
diffident  statements  :  thus,  velim,  /  could  wish,  nolim,  /  should  not  be 
willing,  malim,  I  would  rather,  are  often  preferred  to  a  blunter  void,  / 
insist,  nolo,  /  wont,  malo,  I  prefer. 

720.  (1559.)  The  imperfect  sometimes  denotes  action  which  might 
have  taken  place  in  the  past:  as,  videres,  thou  inightst  have  see?i.  cer- 
neres,  you  might  have  descried. 

155 


7  2 1  -  7  2  5  J      Sen  tences :   The  Simple  Sen  tence 

721.  (1560.)  The  imperfect  often  denotes  action  not  per- 
formed at  the  present  time ;  so  especially  vellem  (noUem, 
mallem):  as, 

vellem  adesse  posset  Panaetius  ;  quaererem  ex  eo,  /  only  wish  Panac- 
tiiis  could  be  with  tis :  I  should  ask  him  (Panaetius  was  dead),  in  hac 
fortuna  perutilis  eius  opera  esset,  /;/  the  present  pinch  his  services  would 
be  extremely  valuable. 

722.  (1561.)  The  pluperfect  represents  action  which  did  not 

take  place  in  the  past :  as, 

vellem  quidem  liceret :  hoc  dixissem,  /  only  wish  it  were  allowed ;  I 
should  have  said  so  and  so.  vicissent  inprobos  boni ;  quid  deinde  ?  the 
good  7night  have  overpowered  the  bad  ;  what  next  ? 


Questions 

723.  (1563  ff.)  The  subjunctive  is  often  used  to  ask  what 
action  or  whether  any  action  is  desired,  commanded,  proper, 
necessary,  or  conceivable. 

In  many  instances  a  negative  answer  or  no  answer  at  all  is  expected. 
The  negative  is  ne,  sometimes  non. 

quid  faciam?  what  am  I  to  do?  huic  cedamus?  huius  condiciones 
audiamus  ?  shall  we  bow  the  knee  to  hitn  ?  shall  we  listen  to  his  terms  ? 
si  enim  Zendni  licuit,  ciir  non  liceat  CatonI  ?  for  if  it  was  allou>ed  Zeno, 
why  should  not  it  be  allowed  Cato  f  ego  mihf  umquam  bonorum  praesi- 
dium  defutiirura  putarem  ?  could  I  have  dreamed  that  I  should  ever  lack 
the  protection  of  the  patriotic  ? 

724.  (1568,)  The  question  may  have  uti  or  ut:  as,  te  ut  iilla  res 
frangat  ?  tu  ut  umquam  te  corrigas  ?  any  thing  break  you  down  ?  you 
ever  reform  f 

The  Imperative  Mood 
Command 

725.  (157 1.)  The  second  person  of  the  imperative 

mood  is  used  in  commands,  exhortations,  or  entreaties: 

as, 

156 


The  Verb:  Tense  [726-730 

desilite  milites,  overboard,  my  men.  signifer,  statue  signum,  standard- 
bearer,  plant  your  standard,  vos  vobis  consulite,  every  matt  of  you  for 
himself,  patent  portae,  proficiscere,  educ  tecum  etiam  omnis  tuos,  the 
gates  are  open,  march  forth;  take  out  all  your  inyrmidons  with  you  too. 

726.  (1575.)  The  third  person,  and  the  longer  forms  of  the 
second  person,  are  used  particularly  in  laws,  legal  documents, 
and  treaties,  and  also  in  impressive  general  rules  and  maxims : 
as, 

amicitia  regi  Antiocho  cum  populo  Romand  his  legibus  esto,  there 
shall  be  amity  between  king  Antiochus  and  Roine  oji  the  following  terms. 
vicinis  bonus  esto,  always  be  good  to  your  neighbors:  The  longer  forms 
are  often  called  the  Future  Imperative. 

727.  (1577.)  The  longer  forms  are  very  often  used  in  the  apodosis  of 
a  sentence,  particularly  with  a  future  or  a  future  perfect  protasis  :  as, 
cum  ego  P.  Cranium  testem  produxero,  refellito,  si  poteris,  whejt  I  put 
Gratiius  on  the  witness  statid,  refute  him  if  you  can. 

Prohibition 

728.  (1583.)  Prohibitions  in  the  second  person  are  usually 
expressed  by  noli  or  ndlite  with  the  infinitive,  particularly  in 
classical  prose  :  as, 

obiurgare  noli,  dont  scold,  nolite  id  velle  quod  fieri  non  potest,  doftt 
yearn  after  the  unattainable.  For  the  subjunctive  in  prohibitions,  see 
715- 

729.  (1585.)  A  prohibition  in  the  second  person  is  often  expressed 
by  the  subjunctive  accompanying  cavS,  or  cav6  ne :  as, 

cave  festines,  do7it  be  in  a  hurry. 


TENSE 


THE  TENSES  OF  THE  INDICATIVE 
The  Present  Tense 

730.  (1587-)  The  present  indicative  represents  action 
as  going  on  at  the  time  of  speaking  or  writing:  as, 

scribo,  /  write,  or  /  am  writing,     domus  aedificatur,  the  house  is 
building. 

157 


731-73^]      Sejiiences:  The  Simple  Se^itence 

731.  (1588.)  The  present  is  used  to  denote  action  custom- 
ary or  repeated  at  any  time,  or  a  general  truth :  as, 

agrl  culturae  non  student,  they  do  not  apply  ihemseh'es  to  farming. 
dum  vltant  stulti  vitia,  in  contraria  currunt,  while  fools  essay  a  vice  to 
shun,  into  its  opposite  they  run. 

*j2t'2.  (1589.)  The  present,  when  accompanied  by  some  expression  of 
duration  of  time,  is  often  used  to  denote  action  which  has  been  going 
on  some  time  and  is  still  going  on. 

This  present  is  translated  by  the  English  perfect:  as,  Lilybaei  mul- 
tos  iam  annos  habitat,  he  has  lived  at  Lilybaeufn  this  many  a  year. 
nimium  diu  te  castra  desiderant,  the  camp  has  felt  your  absence  altogether 
too  long. 

733*  (1590-)  The  present  is  often  used  to  represent  past  ac- 
tion as  going  on  now.  This  is  called  the  Present  of  Vivid 
Narration:  as, 

transflgitur  scutum  Pulioni  et  verutum  in  balteo  defigitur.  avertit  hic 
casus  vaginam,  inpeditumque  hostes  circumsistunt,  Pulio  has  his  shield 
ru?i  through,  and  a  javelin  sticks  fast  in  his  sword  belt.  This  mischattce 
puts  his  scabbard  out  of  reach,  and  the  enemy  encompass  him  in  this 
hampered  condition. 

734.  (1 591.)  The  present  is  sometimes  used  in  brief  historical  or 
personal  memoranda,  to  note  incidents  day  by  day  or  year  by  year  as 
they  occur.     This  is  called  the  Annalistic  Present :  as. 

Proca  deinde  regnat.  is  Numitorem  procreat.  Numitori  regnum 
vetustum  Silviae  gentis  legat,  after  this  Proca  is  king;  this  man  begets 
Numitor  ;  to  Numitor  lie  bequeaths  the  ancient  throne  of  the  Silvian  race. 

The  Imperfect  Tense 

735.  (1594.)  The  imperfect  indicative  represents  ac- 
tion as  going  on  in  past  time  :  as, 

scrlbebam,  /  was  writing,  or  /  wrote,  multosque  per  annos  errabant 
acti  fatis,  and  they  for  many  a  year  were  roaming  round,  by  fates  pur- 
sued. 

736.  (1595.)  The  imperfect  often  denotes  past  action  lasting 
while  something  else  occurred:  as, 

an  turn  eras  cdnsul,  cum  mea  domus  ardebat?  were  you  perhaps  con* 
sul  at  the  time  my  house  was  burning  down  ? 

158 


The  Verb:   Tense  [737-742 

737.  (1596.)  The  imperfect  is  used  to  denote   repeated  or% 
customary  past  action  or  condition:  as, 

noctu  ambulabat  in  publico  TYi^voAstozXhSyThemistodes  used  to  promen- 
ade the  st7'eets  nights. 

738.  (1597.)  The  imperfect,  when  accompanied  by  some  expression 
of  duration  of  time,  is  used  to  denote  action  which  had  been  going  on 
for  some  time,  and  was  still  going  on. 

This  imperfect,  which  is  translated  by  the  English  pluperfect,  is 
analogous  to  the  present  in  732 :  as,  pater  grandis  natu  iam  diu  lecto 
tenebatur,  his  aged  father  had  long  been  bedridden. 

739.  (2302.)  The  imperfect  is  very  often  used  to  denote 
action  proposed,  attempted,  or  begun,  but  not  necessarily 
carried  out.     This  is  called  the  Conative  Use. 

nostros  ingredl  prohibebant,  they  tried  to  stop  our  people  front  gettittg 
in.  num  dubitas  id  me  imperante  facere,  quod  iam  tua  sponte  faciebas  ? 
do  you  possibly  hesitate  to  do  at  viy  command  what  you  wajited  to  do,  as 
it  was,  yourself? 

The  Perfect  Tense 

740.  (1602.)  The  Latin  perfect  indicative  represents  two  English 
tenses:  thus,  the  preterite,  I  wrote,  and  the  perfect,  /  have  writte?t,  are 
both  expressed  by  the  perfect  scripsl.  In  the  first  sense,  this  perfect  is 
called  the  Historical  Perfect ;  in  the  second  sense,  it  is  called  the  Per- 
fect Defi7iite. 

The  Historical  Perfect 

741.  (1603.)  The  historical  perfect  simply  expresses 
action  as  having  occurred  at  an  indefinite  past  tiir.e, 
without  implying  anything  as  to  the  duration  of  the 
action :  as, 

scripsl,  /  wrote,  veni,  vidi,  vici,  came,  saw,  overcame,  apud  Helvetios 
longe  ndbilissimus  fuit  Orgetorix,  among  the  Helvetians,  the  ma7i  of 
highest  birth  by  all  odds  was  Orgetorix. 

The  Perfect  Definite 

742.  (1605.)  The  perfect    definite   expresses   action 

159 


743~747]      Sente7ices :   The  Simple  Sentence 

which   is   already  completed  at  the  present  time,  and 
the  effects  of  which  are  regarded  as  continuing :  as, 

scripsl,  /  have  written,     dlxerunt,  they  have  finished  speaking. 

743.  (1610.)  The  perfect  of  some  verbs  implies  a  negative  idea  em- 
phatically by  under-statement :  as,  fuit  Ilium,  Ilium  has  been,  \.  e.  Ilium 
is  no  more,  viximus,  floruimus,  we  have  lived  our  life,  we  have  had  our 
day. 

744.  (161 1.)  The  perfect  may  denote  an  action  often  done,  or  never 
done.     This  is  commonly  called  the  Gnomic  Perfect. 

iam  saepe  homines  patriam  carosque  parentes  prodiderunt,  time  and 
again  have  men  their  land  betrayed  and  parents  dear,  multi,  cum  obesse 
valient,  profuerunt  et,  cum  prodesse,  obfuerunt,  many  a  man  has  done 
good,  wheft  he  meant  to  do  harm,  and  when  he  meant  to  do  good,  has  done 
hartn. 

The  Pluperfect  Tense 

745.  (16 14.)  The  pluperfect  indicative  expresses  past 
action,  completed  before  another  past  action  expressed 
or  understood:  as, 

scripseram,  /  had  written,  mortuus  erat  Agis  rex.  fllium  reliquerat 
Ledtychidem,  Agis  the  king  had  died ;  he  had  left  a  son  Leotychides. 

The  Future  Tense 

746.  (1619.)  The  future  indicative  expresses  future 
action,  either  momentary  or  continuous:  as, 

scribam,  /  shall  write,  I  shall  be  writing,  or  /  will  write,  I  will  be 
writing.  The  future  commonly  expresses  either  prediction,  or  will, 
determination,  promise,  threat:  as,  tuas  litteras  exspectabo,  /  shall  be 
on  the  lookout  for  letters  from  you.  vivum  te  non  relinquam ;  moriere 
virgis,  /  will  not  leave  you  alive  ;  you  shall  die  under  the  rod, 

747.  (1624,)  The  future  is  sometimes  used,  particularly  in  the  second 
person,  to  express  an  exhortation,  a  command,  or  with  non  a  prohibi- 
tion :  as,  eras  ferramenta  Teanum  tolletis,  to-morrow  to  Teanum  you 
will  take  your  tools. 

160 


The  Verb:  Tense  [74^-751 

The  Future  Perfect  Tense 

748.  (1626.)  The  future  perfect  indicative  expresses 
completed  future  action:  as, 

scripsero,  I  shall  have  written,  or  I  will  have  written.  The  future 
perfect  is  very  common  in  Latin,  particularly  in  protasis  with  a  relative, 
with  cum,  ubT,  etc.,  or  with  si,  to  express  action  anterior  in  time  to  a 
future;  in  English,  this  future  perfect  is  usually  represented  by  a  loose 
present  or  perfect :  as,  quicquid  feceris,  adprobabo,  whatever  you  do,  I 
shall  think  right.  

The  Future  Active  Participle  v^^ith  sum 

749.  (1633.)  The  future  active  participle  combined  with  the 

tenses  of  sum  expresses  action   impending,  resolved  on,  or 

destined,  at  the  time  indicated  by  the  tense  of  the  verb:  as, 

bellum  scripturus  sum,  quod  populus  Romanus  cum  lugurtha  gessit, 
I  purpose  to  write  the  history  of  the  war  that  the  people  of  Rome  carried 
on  with  Jugurtha.  fiet  illud,  quod  futurum  est,  whatever  is  destined  to 
be,  will  be.  Delphos  petiit,  ubi  columnas,  quibus  imposituri  statuas  re- 
gis Persei  fuerant,  suis  statuis  destinavit,  he  went  to  Delphi,  where  he 
appropriated  for  his  own  statues  the  pillars  on  which  they  had  intended 
to  put  statues  of  king  Perses. 

THE  TENSES  OF  THE  SUBJUNCTIVE 

750.  (1634.)  In  simple  sentences,  the  tenses  of  the  subjunc- 
tive correspond  in  general  to  the  same  tenses  of  the  indicative. 
But  the  present  has  a  future  meaning;  the  imperfect  some- 
times expresses  past,  sometimes  present  action  ;  and  the  per- 
fect sometimes  expresses  past  action,  and  sometimes  future 
action.     For  examples  of  the  uses  of  the  tenses,  see  711-724. 


THE  COMPOUND  SENTENCE,  OR  COORDINATION 

75 1  •  (1636-)  Two  or  more  independent  simple  sen- 
tences may  be  coordinated  (466)  to  form  a  compound 
sentence  (467)  in  one  of  two  ways:  either  without  a 
connective,  or  with  a  connective. 
L         ,  161 


752-75^J    Sequences:  The  Coordinate  Sentence 

Without  a  Connective 

752.  (1637.)  When  simple  sentences  or  parts  of  sentences 
are  coordinated  without  any  connective,  this  mode  of  arrange- 
ment is  called  Asyndeton.     It  is  commonly  used  as  follows: 

753-  (1639.)  In  animated  narration  of  events  happening  at  the  same 
moment,  in  mention  of  colleagues  in  office,  and  in  many  set  phrases:  as. 
nostri  celeriter  ad  arma  concurrunt,  vallum  conscendunt,  our  men  rush 
speedily  to  arms,  clamber  up  the  palisade,  huic  s.  c.  intercessit  C.  Cae- 
lius,  C.  Pansa,  tribuni  pi.,  this  decree  of  the  senate  was  objected  to  by 
Caelius  and  Pansa,  tribunes  of  the  commons,  hi  ferre  agere  plebem,  these 
people  worrying  atid  harrying  the  commons  (708). 

754.  (1640.)  In  contrasts  or  antitheses:  as,  vincere  scis,  Hannibal, 
victoria  uti  nescis,  you  know  how  to  conquer,  Hannibal,  but  not  how  to 
use  victory. 

WITH  A  CONNECTIVE 

Copulative  Conjunctions 

755.  (1644.)  Copulative  conjunctions  denote  union  and  con- 
nect both  the  sentences  and  their  meaning.  They  are  et, 
-que^  atque,  or  ac,  and,  and  neque  or  nee,  jicither. 

756.  (1645  f-)  et,  and,  is  the  commonest  copulative,  and  connects 
either  likes  or  unlikes;  with  two  or  more  members,  it  is  either  used 
between  them,  or  is  f^refixed  for  emphasis  to  all :  as, 

Democritus  alba  discernere  et  atra  non  poterat,  Democriius  could 
not  tell  white  and  black  apart,  et  discipulus  et  magister  perhibebantur 
inprobi,  both  pupil  and  master  were  rated  as  knaves,  persuadent  Rauri- 
cis  et  Tulingis  et  Latovicis  uti  una  cum  his  proficiscantur,  they  induce 
the  Rauricans,  Tulingans,  and  Latovicans  to  join  them  in  their  march. 

yST'  (1649.)  -que,  and,  combines  members  which  belong  together 
and  make  a  whole,  though  they  may  be  different  or  opposed  to  each 
other:  as, 

rogat  oratque  te,  he  begs  and  entreats  you.  liberti  servolique  nobilium, 
the  freedmen  and  slaves  of  the  great,  -que  is  usually  put  after  the  first 
word  of  the  new  member. 

758.  (1651.)  After  two  members  without  a  connective,  a  third  mem- 
ber is  sometimes  appended  by  -que :  as,  satis  habebat  hostem  rapinis, 

162 


Copulative  Coordination  [759-7^4 

pabuiationibus,  populationibusque  prohibere,  he  was  satisfied  with  keep- 
ing the  enemy  from  pliaidering,  foraging,  and  ravaging. 

759.  (1652.)  atque,  or  before  any  consonant  except  h  often  ac,  a7id, 
and  besides,  adds  something  belonging  essentially  to  what  goes  before, 
but  more  important  as  a  supplement  or  extension  ;  as,  se  ex  navi  pro- 
iecit  atque  in  hostes  aquilam  ferre  coepit,  he  sprang  overboard  and  fur- 
thermore proceeded  to  bear  the  eagle  upon  the  enemy. 

760.  (1653.)  atque  is  used  in  comparisons,  afterwords  of  likeness  and 
unlikeness:  as,  pari  spatio  transmissus,  atque  ex  Gallia  est  in  Britan- 
niam,  the  Journey  across  is  Just  as  long  as  it  is  from  Gaul  to  Britain. 

761.  (1657.)  neque  or  nee,  neither,  nor,  and  .  .  .  not,  but  .  .  .  7iot,  is  used 
as  a  negative  copulative,  sometimes  as  a  negative  adversative  :  as, 

opinionibus  volgi  rapimur  in  errorem  nee  vera  eernimus,  we  are  swept 
into  error  by  the  delusions  of  the  world  and  cannot  make  out  the  truth. 
subsidio  suis  ierunt  collemque  ceperunt,  neque  nostrorum  militum  impe- 
tum  sustinere  potuerunt,  they  went  to  aid  their  people  and  carried  the  hill, 
but  they  could  not  stand  the  fiery  onset  of  our  soldiers,  neque  or  nee  is 
often  repeated  :  as,  nee  meliores  nee  beatiores  esse  possumus,  we  can 
neither  be  better  nor  wiser. 

762.  (1 66 1.)  After  a  general  negative,  a  word  may  be  emphasized  by 
ne  .  .  .  quidem  or  non  modo,  or  the  parts  of  a  compound  sentence  may 
be  distributed  by  neque  .  .  .  neque,  without  destroying  the  negation 
(675):  as, 

nihil  in  locis  eommunibus,  ne  in  fanis  quidem,  nihil  istum  neque  prlvati 
neque  public!  tota  in  Sieilia  rellquisse,  that  the  defendant  has  left  nothing 
untouched  in  public  places,  no,  fiot  even  iti  the  temples,  nothing  either  in 
the  way  of  private  or  of  public  property,  in  all  Sicily. 

Combination  of  Different  Copulatives 

763.  (1665.)  Affirmative  and  negative  copulatives  are  sometimes  com- 
bined. Thus  neque  or  nee  combined  with  et,  in  the  sequences  neque 
.  .  .  et  and  et  .  .  .  neque  is  common  in  Cicero  :  as, 

nee  miror  et  gaudeo,  in  the  first  place  I  ai7t  not  surprised,  and  in  the 
second  place  I  feel  glad. 

Disjunctive  Conjunctions 

764.  (1667.)  Disjunctive  conjunctions  connect  the  sen- 
tences, but  disconnect  the  meaning.  They  are  aut,  vel,  sive 
or  seu,  or.     Of  these  conjunctions,  aut,  vel,  and  sive  are  often 

163 


765-77 0  Sentences:   The  Coordinate  Sentence 

placed  before  two  or  more  members  of  a  sentence  in  the  sense 
of  either  .  ,  .  or, 

765.  (1668.)  aut,  or,  sometimes  or  even,  or  at  least,  is  used  between  two 
members  which  are  to  be  represented  as  essentially  different  in  mean- 
ing, and  of  which  one  excludes  the  other:  as,  hie  vincendum  aut  raori- 
endum,  milites,  est,  here  you  must  conquer,  my  men,  or  die. 

766.  (1670.)  vel,  or,  introduces  an  alternative  as  a  matter  of  choice 
or  preference,  and  often  relates  merely  to  the  selection  of  an  expression  : 
as,  Catilinam  ex  urbe  vel  eiecimus  vel  emisimus  vel  ipsum  egredientem 
verbis  proseciiti  sumus,  we  have — what  shall  I  say? — driven  Catiline  out 
of  town,  or  allowed  him  to  go  out,  or,  when  he  was  going  out  of  his  own 
accord,  wished  him  a  pleasant  journey. 

767.  (1672.)  sive  or  seu,  or,  when  used  once  only,  is  found  chiefly  in 
corrections  added  :  as,  dixit  Pompeius,  sive  voluit,  Pompey  made  a 
speech,  or  rather  attempted  to  make  one. 

768.  (1673.)  sive  is  often  repeated  in  the  sense  of  either,  or  no  matter 
whether  ...or:  as,  ita  sive  casu  sive  consilio  deorum,  thus,  no  matter 
whether  frojn  chance  or  through  special  providence. 

Adversative  Conjunctions 

769.  (1676.)  Adversative  conjunctions  connect  the  sen- 
tences, but  contrast  the  meaning.  They  are  autem,  on  the 
other  hand,  sed,  verum,  but,  vero,  but,  indeed,  at,  but,  tamen, 
nevertheless. 

Of  these  conjunctions,  autem  and  vero  are  put  after  one  word,  or 
sometimes  after  two  closely  connected  words ;  tamen  is  put  either  at 
the  beginning  or  after  an  emphatic  word. 

770.  (1677.)  autem,  again,  on  the  other  hand,  however,  simply  con- 
tinues the  discourse  by  a  statement  appended  to  the  preceding,  with- 
out setting  it  aside  :  as, 

horum  principibus  pecunias,  civitati  autem  imperium  totius  provinciae 
pollicetur,  to  the  chieftains  of  this  nation  on  the  one  hand  he  promises 
moneys,  and  to  the  community  on  the  other  hand  the  hegemony  of  the 
whole  province. 

771.  (1679.)  sed  and  verum,  but,  are  used  either  in  restriction,  or. 
after  a  negative,  in  direct  opposition  :  as,  non  ego  erus  tibi,  sed  servus 
sum,  I  am  not  your  master,  but  your  slave. 

164 


The  Intermediate  Coordinate  Sentence  [772-776 

772.  (1680.)  non  modo,  or  non  solum,  not  otily,  not  alone,  is  followed 
by  sed  etiam,  but  also :  as,  qui  non  s51um  interfuit  his  rebus,  sed  etiam 
praefuit,  who  has  not  had  a  hand  only  i?i  these  matters,  but  complete 
charge. 

773.  (1682.)  non  modo  or  n5n  solum,  when  attended  by  another  nega- 
tive, may  also  be  followed  by  sed  ne  .  .  .  quidem,  but  7iot even:  as, 

non  modo  tibi  non  irascor,  sed  ne  reprehendo  quidem  factum  tuum,  so 
far  from  being  a?igry  wz'th  you  I  do  not  even  criticise  your  action.  When 
both  members  have  the  same  predicate,  usually  placed  last,  the  nega- 
tion in  ne  .  .  .  quidem  usually  applies  to  the  first  member  also :  as,  talis 
vir  non  modo  facere,  sed  ne  cogitare  quidem  quicquam  audebit,  quod  non 
audeat  praedicare,  a  ma7i  of  this  ki?id  will  not  only  not  venture  to  do,  but 
not  even  to  conceive  anything  which  he  would  not  venture  to  trumpet  to 
the  world. 

774.  (1685.)  at,  but,  denotes  emphatic  lively  opposition,  an  objection, 
or  a  contrast :  as,  brevis  a  natura  nobis  vita  data  est ;  at  memoria  bene 
redditae  vitae  sempiterna,  a  short  life  hath  been  given  by  nature  unto 
ma7t;  but  the  memory  of  a  life  laid  down  in  a  good  cause  endureth  for 
ever. 

OTHER    WORDS   AS   CONNECTIVES 

775.  (1688.)  Simple  sentences  may  also  be  coordinated  by- 
words denoting  inference  or  cause,  such  as  ergo,  igitur,  ita- 
que,  therefore;  nam,  namque,  enim, /<?r,  etenim, /(?r  you 
see:  as, 

qua  ex  re  hominum  multitudo  cognosci  potuit :  nam  minus  horis  tribus 
miinitionem  perfecerunt,  and  from  this  their  numbers  could  be  gauged ; 
for  they  made  a  breastwork  in  less  than  three  hours,  nihil  est  praestan- 
tius  deo  ;  ab  eo  igitur  mundum  necesse  est  regi,  nothing  is  more  excellent 
than  god.  Therefore  the  utiiverse  must  be  governed  by  him.  Of  these 
words,  nam,  namque,  and  itaque  are  usually  put  first  in  the  sentence; 
enim  and  igitur,  usually  after  one  word,  rarely  after  two. 

The  Intermediate  Coordinate  Sentence 

776.  (1693.)  A  sentence  coordinate  in  form  with  another 
sentence  is  often  equivalent  in  meaning  to  a  subordinate  sen- 
tence. Such  sentences  are  called  Intermediate  Coordinate 
Sentences, 

165 


177-779]  Sentences:   The  Coordinate  Sentence 

The  most  varied  relations  of  a  subordinate  sentence  may  be  thus 
expressed  by  a  coordinate  sentence,  and  the  combination  of  the  two 
coordinate  sentences  is  in  sense  equivalent  to  a  complex  sentence. 
Such  coordinated  sentences  are  a  survival  of  a  more  primitive  state  of 
the  language. 

777.  (1695  ff.)  The  relation  of  the  two  members  may  not 
be  indicated  by  the  mood,  but  left  to  be  determined  from  the 
context. 

Thus,  in  the  combination  amat,  sapit,  he  is  in  love,  he  shows  his 
sense,  the  two  members  amat  and  sapit  are  alike  in  form.  But  in  sense, 
sapit  is  the  main  member  and  amat  is  the  subordinate  member.  Just 
what  the  relation  of  the  amat  is,  whether  it  is  si  amat,  if  he  is  in  io7>e^ 
cum  amat,  when  he  is  in  love,  quod  amat,  because  he  is  in  loz>e,  or  etsi 
amat,  though  he  is  in  love,  etc.,  etc.,  is  left  to  the  reader  to  make  out. 
The  following  are  examples  of  common  combinations  : 

vix  proram  attigerat,  rumpit  Saturnia  funem,  scarce  had  he  touched 
the  prow,  Saturnia  snaps  the  rope,  i.  e.  cum  rumpit.  tii  quoque  magnam 
partem  opere  in  tanto,  sineret  dolor,  Icare,  haberes,  thou  too  a  goodly 
space  in  work  so  vast,  had  grief  allowed,  O  Icarus,  hadst  filled,  i.e.  si 
sineret  dolor,  est  locus,  Hesperiam  Grai  cognomine  dicunt,  there  is  a 
place,  the  Greeks  by  name  Hesperia  call,  i.e.  which  they  call. 


778.  (1705.)  The  subordinate  idea  is  often  indicated  by  the 
subjunctive  of  desire  coordinated  with  another  verb,  usually 
with  one  which  has  a  different  subject. 

Thus,  the  combination  ames :  oportet,  jf?;/  should  love ;  it  is  right, 
in  which  the  two  verbs  are  used  separately,  blends  into  one  whole, 
ames  oportet,  //  is  right  you  should  love. 

779.  (1706.)  The  negative  employed  with  coordinated  subjunctives 
is  the  adverb  ne,  not. 

Thus,  the  combination  vide:  ne  me  ludas,  see  toit;  don't  you  fool  me 
(715),  in  which  the  two  verbs  are  used  separately,  blendr.  into  one  whole, 
vide  ne  me  ludas,  see  to  it  you  don't  fool  me.  Similarly,  metuo  :  ne  peccet, 
I  am  afraid;  let  her  not  slip  up,  becomes  metuo  ne  peccet,  /  am  afraid 
she  may  slip  up.  From  its  frequent  use  in  sentences  of  subordinate 
meaning,  ne  came  at  an  early  period  to  be  regarded  as  a  subordinating 

166 


Subordinatio7i  [7^0"?^  5 

conjunction  also,  lest,  that  .  .  .  not.     Hence  members  with  ne  are  more 
conveniently  treated  under  the  head  of  subordination  (891). 

780.  (1707.)  The  subjunctive  is  often  coordinated  with  verbs  of  wish- 
ing :  as,  de  Menedemo  vellem  verum  fuisset,  de  regina  velim  verum  sit, 
about  Menedemus  I  could  wish  it  had  been  true,  about  the  queen  I  hope  it 
may  be  true  (712,  711).  tellus  optem  prius  ima  dehiscat,  /  would  the  earth 
to  deepest  depths  might  sooner  yawn.  These  verbs  also  take  the  subjunc- 
tive with  ut ;  see  894. 

781.  (1708.)  The  subjunctive  is  often  coordinated  with  verbs  of  re- 
quest, exhortation,  direction,  command:  as,  rogat  finem  orandl  facial, 
he  requests  him  to  make  an  end  of  entreaty  (714).  hunc  admonet  iter  caute 
faciat,  he  warns  him  he  must  pursue  his  march  with  care,  huic  imperat 
quas  possit  adeat  civitates,  he  orders  him  to  visit  such  communities  as  he 
can.     Many  such  verbs  also  take  the  subjunctive  with  ut ;  see  893. 

782.  (1709  f.)  The  subjunctive  is  often  coordinated  with  expressions 
of  propriety  or  necessity,  such  as  oportet  and  necesse  est,  or  with  verbs 
of  concession,  such  as  licet. 

me  ipsum  ames  oportet,  non  mea,  /"/  is  7ny self  you  should  love,  not  my 
possessions  (714).  condemnetur  necesse  est,  be  condemtied  he  needs  must. 
fremant  omnes  licet,  dicam  quod  sentio,  though  everybody  r,tay  growl,  I 
will  say  what  I  think. 

THE  COMPLEX  SENTENCE,  OR  SUBORDINATION 

783.  (1714.)  In  a  complex  sentence,  that  is,  one  con- 
sisting of  a  main  and  a  subordinate  sentence  (466),  the 
subordinate  member  is  introduced  by  some  subordi- 
nating word :  such  are, 

I.  Interrogative  words,  in  indirect  questions  (810-819) ;  II.  Relative 
pronouns  (820-844)  5  HI.  Relative  conjunctive  particles,  or  conjunctive 
particles  not  of  relative  origin  (845-945), 

784.  (1716.)  Subordinate  sentences  which  express  time  are  called 
Temporal  sentences;  condition,  cause,  or  concession.  Conditional, 
Causal,  or  Concessive  sentences ;  purpose.  Final  sentences  ;  result.  Con- 
secutive sentences. 

Primary  and  Secondary  Tenses 

785.  (17 1 7.)    The    indicative    present,    future,    and    future 

167 


786-790]  Sentmces :   The  Subordinate  Sentence 

perfect  are  called  Primary  Tenses;  the  indicative  imperfect, 
historical  perfect,  and  pluperfect  are  called  Secondary  Tenses, 
The  perfect  definite  and  the  present  of  vivid  narration  are 
sometinies  regarded  as  primary  tenses,  oftener  as  secondary 
tenses. 

MOOD  OF  THE  SUBORDINATE  SENTENCE 

786.  (1720.)  The  indicative  and  the  subjunctive  are  both  used  in 
subordinate  sentences,  as  will  be  shown  in  the  treatment  of  the  several 
words  of  subordination.  Some  general  uses  may  be  mentioned  collec- 
tively here. 

THE  INDICATIVE  MOOD  ♦ 

787.  (1721.)  The  indicative  is  used  in  sentences  introduced 

by  a  relative  pronoun,  or  by  a  causal  conjunctive  word  other 

than  cum,  unless  there  is  some  special  reason  for  using  the 

subjunctive. 

pdntem,  qui  erat  ad  Genavam,  iubet  rescind!,  he  orders  the  bridge 
which  was  7iear  Geneva  torn  up.  concedo,  quia  necesse  est,  /  give  up, 
because  I  have  to.  In  sentences  of  this  class,  however,  the  subjunctive 
is  often  required,  particularly  in  indirect  discourse  (788),  or  in  cases  of 
attraction  (793).  

THE  SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD 
The  Subjunctive  of  Indirect  Discourse 

788.  (1722.)  The  subjunctive  is  used  in  relative, 
causal,  temporal,  and  conditional  sentences  in  indirect 
discourse. 

789.  (1723.)  A  direct  quotation  or  question  gives  the  words  of  the 
original  speaker  without  alteration.  When  the  original  words  of  a 
quotation  or  question  are  changed  to  conform  to  the  construction  of 
the  sentence  in  which  they  are  quoted,  it  is  called  Indirect  Discourse, 

790.  (1724.)  In  indirect  discourse,  the  subjunctive  is  sub- 
ordinate to  an  infinitive  or  an  accusative  with  the  infinitive, 
dependent  on  a  verb  of  saying  or  thinking  (961):  as, 

168 


Mood  of  the  Subordinate  Sentence    [ 7 9 1  -794 

negat  Epicurus  iucunde  posse  vivi,  nisi  cum  virtute  vivatur,  Epicurus 
avers  there  is  7io  living  happily,  without  living  virtuously ;  directly, 
iiicunde  vivi  non  potest,  nisi  cum  virtiite  vivitur.  Socrates  dicere  sole- 
bat,  omnes  in  eo  quod  scirent,  satis  esse  eloquentes,  Socrates  used  to 
inaiiitai7i  that  all  men  were  eloquent  enough  in  a  matter  they  knew ; 
directly,  omnes  in  eo  quod  sciunt  satis  sunt  eloquentes. 

791.  (1725.)  The  idea  of  saying  or  thinking  is  often  not 
formally  expressed  in  the  main  sentence,  and  the  indirect  dis- 
course is  intimated  by  the  subordinate  subjunctive  only:  as, 

noctu  ambulabat  in  public5  Themistocles,  quod  somnum  capere  non 
posset,  Themistocles  used  to  walk  the  streets  nights,  "  because  he  could  not 
sleep,"  given  as  Themistocles's  reason;  the  writer's  would  be  poterat. 
Paetus  omnes  libros,  quos  frater  suus  reliquisset,  mihi  donavit,  Paetus 
made  tne  a  present  of  all  the  books  "  that  his  brother  had  lefti' 

792.  For  detailed  rules  governing  the  use  of  the  moods  and  tenses 
in  indirect  discourse,  see  1020-1040. 

The  Subjunctive  of  Attraction 

793.  (1728.)  The  subjunctive  is  used  in  sentences  express- 
ing an  essential  part  of  the  thought,  which  are  subordinate  to 
another  subjunctive,  or  to  an  infinitive.  This  is  called  the 
Subjtmctive  of  Attraction. 

vereor  ne,  dum  minuere  velim  labdrem,  augeam,  /  am  afraid  I  jnay 
7fiake  the  work  harder,  while  I  am  aiming  to  make  it  less,  mos  est 
Athenis  laudarl  in  contione  eos,  qui  sint  in  proelils  interfecti,  //  is  the  cus^ 
tom  in  Athens  to  eulogize  in  public  assembly  such  as  have  falle?i  i?t  action. 

The  Subjunctive  of  Repeated  Action 

794.  (1730.)  The  subjunctive  is  sometimes  used  in  relative, 
temporal,  or  conditional  sentences,  to  express  action  repeated 
or  occurring  at  no  particular  time:  as, 

neque  aliter  si  faciat,  iillam  inter  suos  habet  auct5ritatem,  and  if  he 
does  not  do  this,  he  never  has  any  ascendancy  at  all  over  his  people.  With 
the  present  and  perfect,  however,  this  subjunctive  is  confined  principally 
to  the  indefinite  second  person  singular:  as,  bonus  segnior  fit,  ubf  neg- 
legas,  the  good  ma7i  always  gets  slacker,  when  you  are  neglectful.  The 
imperfect  and  pluperfect  subjunctive  begin  with  Catullus  and  Caesar, 

169 


yg^-Soo]  Sentences:   The  Subordinate  Sentence 

and  get  to  be  common  with  Livy  and  Tacitus:  as,  si  quis  prehenderetur, 
consensu  militum  eripiebatur,  every  time  a  man  was  taken  up,  he  was 
rescued  by  the  joint  action  of  the  rank  and  file. 


TENSE  OF  THE  SUBORDINATE  SENTENCE 
The  Tenses  of  the  Indicative 
795*  (1732.)    The  tense  of  a  subordinate  indicative   often 
indicates  a  close  relation  of  time  with  the  tense  of  the  lead- 
ing verb.     The  subordinate  sentence  in  such  combinations  is 
said  to  have  Relative  time. 

796.  (1734.)  The  subordinate  indicative  tense  may  express  action  con- 
temporaneous, antecedent,  or  subsequent,  in  relation  to  the  main  action  : 
as,  omnia  deerant,  quae  ad  reficiendas  naves  erant  usui,  they  were  out  of 
everything  that  was  serviceable  for  repairing  their  vessels,  cum  posul 
librum,  adsensid  omnis  elabitur,  when  I  drop  the  book,  all  assent  melts 
away,  decern  dies  sunt  ante  ludos,  quos  Cn.  Pompeius  factdrus  est,  there 
are  ten  days  before  the  shows  which  Pompey  is  to  manage. 

797*  (1738)  A  subordinate  indicative  tense  is  said  to  be  Independent 
when  it  simply  expresses  time  of  its  own,  without  any  close  relation  to 
the  time  of  the  main  action, 

ut  mos  fuit  Bithyniae  regibus,  lectica  ferebatur,  he  regularly  rode  in  a 
litter,  as  was  the  practice  of  t/ie  despots  of  Bithynia  ;  here  fuit  denotes 
action  simply  as  past,  without  further  definition  of  time  (741).  whereas 
erat,  relative  to  the  time  of  ferebatur,  would  imply  which  was  then  the 
practice  (736). 

THE   TENSES   OF  THE  SUBJUNCTIVE 

798.  (1741.)  The  time  of  the  subordinate  subjunctive  is 
usually  Relative,  that  is,  either  contemporaneous,  antecedent, 
or  subsequent,  in  relation  to  that  of  the  main  action. 

799.  (1742.)  Action  contemporaneous  with  the  main  action  is  ex- 
pressed by  a  present  or  imperfect  subjunctive.  Action  antecedent  is 
expressed  by  a  perfect  or  a  pluperfect  subjunctive.  Action  subsequent 
is  expressed  by  the  future  participle  with  a  form  of  sim  or  of  essem. 

800.  (1743.)  Subordinate  sentences  with  verbs  of  will  or  aim,  with 
verbs  of  fear,  also  final  sentences  and  many  consecutive  sentences  are 

170 


Tense  of  the  SMbordinate  Sentence    [801-804 

expressed  in  Latin  as  contemporaneous  with  the  main  action,  not  as 
subsequent  to  it. 

801.  (1744.)  The  main  and  subordinate  sentences  may  express  wholly- 
different  spheres  of  time  by  tenses  not  commonly  used  together,  when 
the  thought  requires  it.  In  such  cases  the  tense  of  the  subordinate 
member  is  called  Indepe7ident,  like  the  analogous  tenses  of  the  indica- 
tive (797). 

SEQUENCE  OF   TENSES 

802.  (1745.)  The  use  of  subordinate  subjunctive  tenses  relatively  to 
the  main  tense,  or  what  is  commonly  called  the  Sequettce  of  Tenses,  is 
as  follows : 

Tense  Subordinate  to  an  Indicative 

803.  (1746.)  The  present,  or  perfect  subjunctive,  or 
the  future  participle  with  a  form  of  sim,  is  used  in 
sentences  subordinate  to  a  primary  tense  (785) :  as, 

Subordinate  to  the  present  tense :  te  hortor,  ut  Romam  pergas,  / 
urge  you  to  repair  to  Rome,  ego  quid  acceperim  scio,  /  know  what  I 
have  received,  quam  sum  sollicitus  quidnam  futurum  sit,  how  a7ixious 
I  am  to  know  what  in  the  world  is  to  cotne. 

Subordinate  to  the  perfect  definite:  in  eum  locum  res  deducta  est  ut 
salvl  esse  nequeamus,  to  such  a  pass  has  it  come  that  we  cannot  be  saved. 
an  oblitus  es  quid  initio  dixerim  ?  have  you  possibly  forgotten  what  I 
said  at  the  start  ?  quoniam  in  earn  rati5nem  vitae  nos  fortuna  dediixit, 
ut  sempiternus  sermode  nobis  futiirus  sit,  caveamus,  since  fortune  has  set 
us  in  such  a  walk  of  life  that  we  are  to  be  eternally  talked  about,  let  us 
be  on  our  guard. 

Subordinate  to  the  future  or  future  perfect :  efficiam,  ut  intellegatis, 
I  will  see  that  you  under stajid.  dicent  quid  statuerint,  they  will  tell  what 
they  decided  07t.  quae  fuerit  causa,  mox  videro,  what  the  reason  was  I 
won't  consider  till  by-and-by. 

804.  (1747.)  The  imperfect,  or  pluperfect  subjunc- 
tive, or  the  future  participle  with  a  form  of  essem,  is 
used  in  sentences  subordinate  to  a  secondary  tense 
(785):  as. 

Subordinate  to  the  imperfect  tense:  his  rebus  fiebat,  ut  minus  late 
vagarentur,  so  it  came  to  pass  that  they  did  7iot  roa77i  roimd  77iuch.  doce- 
bat,  ut  totius  Galliae  principatum  Aedui  tenuissent,  he  showed  how  the 

171 


8o5,  806]  Sentences :   The  Siibordmate  Sentence 

Aeduans  had  had  the  mastery  over  all  Gaul.  Flaccus  quid  alii  postea  fac- 
tiiri  essent  scire  non  poterat,  Flaccus  could  not  tell  what  other  people 
would  do  in  the  future. 

Subordinate  to  the  historical  perfect:  is  civitati  persuasit,  ut  de 
finibus  suis  cum  omnibus  copiis  exirent,  this  man  prevailed  on  his  com- 
munity to  emigrate  from  their  place  of  abode,  bag  and  baggage,  quas 
res  in  Hispania  gessisset,  disseruit,  he  discoursed  ofi  his  military  career 
in  Spain,  an  Lacedaemonii  quaesiverunt  num  se  esset  mori  prohibittirus  ? 
did  the  Spartans  ask  whether  he  was  going  to  prevent  them  from  dying  ? 

Subordinate  to  the  pluperfect :  Ariovistus  tantos  sib!  spiritiis  sump- 
serat,  ut  ferendus  non  videretur,  Ariovistus  had  put  on  such  high  and 
mighty  airs  that  he  seemed  intolerable,  hie  pagus,  cum  domo  exisset 
patrum  nostrorum  memoria,  L.  Cassium  consulem  interfecerat,  this  canton, 
sallying  out  from  home  in  our  fathers  recollection,  had  put  Cassius,  the 
consul,  to  death,  illud  quod  mihX  extremum  proposueram,  cum  essem  de 
belli  genere  dicturus,  the  point  I  had  reserved  till  the  end,  when  I  was 
going  to  discourse  on  the  character  of  the  war. 

805.  (1752.)  The  present  of  vivid  narration  is  commonly 
regarded  as  a  secondary  tense,  but  sometimes  as  a  primary 
tense  (785) :  as, 

Aedui,  cum  se  defendere  non  possent,  legates  ad  Caesarem  mittunt, 

the  Aedua7is,  finding  they  could  not  defend  themselves,  send  some  envoys 
to  Caesar,     hortatur,  ut  arma  capiant,  he  urges  them  to  fly  to  arms. 

806.  (1755  ff.)  An  independent  (801)  present  or  perfect  sub- 
junctive is  sometimes  exceptionally  put  with  a  main  second- 
ary tense,  particularly  in  clauses  of  result  (905) :  as, 

in  provincia  Sicilia,  quam  iste  per  triennium  ita  vexavit,  ut  ea  restitui 
in  antiquum  statum  nullo  modo  possit,  /;/  the  province  of  Sicily,  which 
the  defendant  so  effectually  tormented  three  years  running  that  it  can- 
not be  restored  at  all  to  its  original  estate. 

The  perfect  subjunctive  sometimes  represents  the  time  of  the  per- 
fect definite:  as,  eo  iisque  se  praebebat  patientem  atque  impigrum,  ut 
eum  nemo  umquam  in  equo  sedentem  viderit,  he  shoiued  himself  so  inde- 
fatigably  active  that  no  human  being  has  ever  seen  him  astride  a  horse. 
Sometimes  the  time  of  the  historical  perfect :  as,  temporis  tanta  fuit 
exiguitas,  ut  ad  galeas  induendas  tempus  defuerit,  so  scant  was  the  time 
that  they  had  not  time  to  put  their  helmets  on. 

172 


The  Indirect  Question  [807-811 

Tense  Subordinate  to  a  Subjunctive 

807.  (1762.)  When  the  leading  verb  is  a  subjunctive,  the 
present  is  regarded  as  primary,  and  the  imperfect  and  plu- 
perfect as  secondary :  as, 

quid  prafecerim  facias  me  velim  certiorem,  how  far  I  have  succeeded  I 
wish  you  would  let  me  know,  quae  si  bis  bina  quot  essent  didicisset  Epi- 
curus, certe  non  diceret,  Epicurus  would  certainly  not  say  this,  if  he  had 
ever  been  taught  how  much  twice  two  is. 

Tense  Subordinate  to  a  Noun  of  the  Verb 

808.  (1766.)  A  subjunctive  subordinate  to  one  of  the  nouns 
of  the  verb  (319),  except  the  perfect  infinitive  or  the  perfect 
participle,  follows  the  sequence  of  the  leading  verb :  as, 

desino  quaerere  cur  emeris,  /  cease  to  ask  why  you  bought,  neminem 
tarn  amentem  fore  putaverunt,  ut  emeret  argentum,  they  did  not  dream 
anybody  would  be  crazy  enough  to  buy  plate. 

809.  (1767.)  With  a  perfect  infinitive  or  perfect  participle,  the  sub- 
ordinate subjunctive  may  be  in  the  imperfect  or  pluperfect,  even  with 
a  primary  leading  verb  :  as,  satis  mihf  multa  verba  fecisse  videor,  qua  re 
esset  h5c  bellum  necessarium,  I  fancy  I  have  said  enough  to  show  why 

this  war  is  unavoidable. 

«fc 

The  Indirect  Question 

810.  (1773  f.)  The  subjunctive  is  used  in  indirect 
questions  or  exclamations. 

Thus,  when  the  direct  question,  qui  scis?  how  do  you  know?  is  subor- 
dinated to  a  main  sentence,  such  as  quaero,  /  ask,  ^he  scis  becomes 
scias  :  quaero  qui  scias,  /  ask  how  you  know.  Questions  or  exclamations 
thus  subordinated  are  called  Indirect  (789).  The  indirect  question  is 
one  of  the  commonest  of  constructions.  It  depends  on  verbs  or  ex- 
pressions meaning  not  only  ask,  but  also  tell,  see,  hear,  know,  wonder, 
etc.,  etc. 

Yes  or  No  Questions 

811.  (1775.)  Indirect  Yes  or  No  questions  are  introduced 
by  the  same  interrogative  particles  that   are   used  in  direct 

173 


8 1 2-8 1 6]  Sentences:   The  Subordinate  Sentence 

questions  (698).  But  in  indirect  questions,  num  and  -ne  are 
used  without  any  essential  difference,  in  the  sense  of  ivhether, 
if.     nonne  is  used  thus  with  quaero:  as, 

quaesivi  cognosceretne  signum,  /  asked  if  he  recognized  the  seal. 
quaero  nonne  tibi  faciendum  idem  sit,  /  ask  whether  you  ought  not  to  do 
the  same,  videte  num  dubitandum  vobis  sit,  consider  whether  you  ought 
to  have  any  hesitation. 

812.  (1777.)  A  conditional  protasis  with  si,  if,  to  see  if  sometimes 
takes  the  place  of  an  indirect  question  in  expressions  of  hope,  or  expec- 
tation :  as,  exspectabam  si  quid  scrlberes,  /  was  waiting  to  see  whether 
you  would  write  anything,  circumfunduntur  hostes,  si  quern  aditum 
reperire  possent,  the  enemy  came  streaming  round,  to  see  if  they  could 
find  any  way  of  getting  in. 

Alternative  Questions 

813.  (1778.)  Indirect  alternative  questions  are  introduced 

like  direct  questions  (705).     But  when  the  second  member  is 

negative,  it  has  oftener  necne  than  an  non :  as, 

quaesivi  a  Catiilna  in  conventu  fuisset,  necne,  I  asked  Catiline  whether 
he  had  been  at  the  meeting  or  not.  permultum  interest  utrum  perturba- 
tione  animi,  an  consult©  fiat  iniiiria,  //  snakes  a  vast  difference  whether 
wrong  he  done  in  heat  of  passion,  or  with  deliberate  intent. 

814.  (1782.)  The  second  member  only  of  an  alternative  question  is  often 
expressed  after  baud  scio  an,  /  dont  know  but,  possibly,  perhaps :  as, 

baud  scio  an  fieri  possit,  /  dont  know  but  it  is  possible.  Similarly 
with  nescio  an,  dubito  ah,  etc.  :  as,  eloquentia  nescio  an  habuisset  parem 
neminem,  /;/  oratory  I  fancy  he  would  have  had  no  peer. 

Pronoun  Questions 

815.  (1785.)  Indirect  pronoun  questions  are  introduced  by 
the  same  pronominal  words  that  are  used  in  direct  pronoun 
questions  (706):  as, 

cognoscit,  quae  gerantur,  he  ascertains  what  is  going  on.  videtis  ut 
omnes  despiciat,  you  can  see  how  he  looks  down  on  everybody. 

Orfginal  Subjunctives 

816.  (1786.)  Questions  already  in  the  subjunctive  may  also  become 

174 


The  Relative  Sentence  [817-822 

indirect.     Thus,  quo  me  vertam  ?  which  way  shall  I  turn  ?  (723)  becomes 
indirect  in  quo  me  vertam  nescio,  /  dont  know  which  way  I  am  to  turn. 

Indicative  Questions  Apparently  Indirect 

817.  (1787.)  In  poetry,  the  indicative  sometimes  occurs  where  the 
subjunctive  might  be  used :  as,  adspice,  ut  ingreditur,  see,  how  he 
marches  off. 

818.  (1788.)  The  indicative  is  used  with  nescio,  followed  by  a  pro- 
nominal interrogative,  when  this  combination  is  equivalent  to  an  in- 
definite pronoun  or  adverb:  as,  prodit  nescio  quis,  there s  some  one 
coming  out.  This  is  a  condensed  form  for  prodit  nescid  quis  sit,  there's 
coming  out  I  dont  know  who  it  is,  the  real  question,  sit,  being  sup- 
pressed, and  nescio  quis  acquiring  the  meaning  of  aliquis,  somebody. 

819.  (1 791.)  Relative  constructions  often  have  the  appearance  of  indi- 
rect questions,  and  care  must  be  taken  not  to  confound  the  two.  Thus, 
nosti  quae  sequuntur,  you  know  the  things  that  follow,  i.  e.  not  what 
follows. 

The    Relative   Sentence 

820.  (1792  f.)  Relative  sentences  are  introduced  by 
relative  words,  the  most  important  of  which  is  the  pro- 
noun qui,  who,  which,  or  that. 

The  relative  adverbs,  ubf,  quo,  unde,  often  take  the  place  of  a  relative 
pronoun  with  a  preposition. 

821.  (1795.)  The  relative  pronoun,  like  the  English  relative  who, 
which,  was  developed  from  the  interrogative.  Originally,  the  relative 
sentence  precedes,  and  the  main  sentence  follows,  just  as  in  question 
and  answer. 

Thus,  quae  miitat,  ea  corrumpit,  what  he  changes,  that  he  spoils,  is  a 
modification  of  the  older  question  and  answer:  quae  mutat  ?  ea  cor- 
rumpit, what  does  he  change  ?  that  he  spoils. 

822.  (1796.)  The  relative  sentence  usually  comes  last. 
Hence,  the  substantive  of  the  main  sentence  is  called  the 
Antecedent :  as, 

ultra  eum  locum,  quo  in  loc5  German!  consederant  castris  idoneum 
locum  delegit,  beyojid  the  place  in  which  place  the  Germans  had  estab- 
lished themselves,  he  selected  a  suitable  spot  for  his  camp.     The  three 

175 


8  2  ^-8  29]  Se7i tences :   The  Su b ordinate  Sen ience 

words  dies,  locus,  and  res,  are  very  commonly  expressed  thus  both  in 
the  antecedent  and  the  relative  sentence. 

823.  (1799.)  The  antecedent  is  often  omitted  when  it  is  in- 
definite, or  is  obvious  from  the  context :  as, 

delegistl  quos  Romae  relinqueres,  you  picked  out  people  to  leave  in 
Rome.  Caesar  cognovit  Considium,  quod  non  vidisset,  pro  viso  sib?  re- 
niintiavisse,  Caesar  ascertained  that  Considius  had  reported  to  him  as 
seen  what  he  had  not  seen. 

Agreement  of  the  Relative 

824.  (1802.)  A  relative  pronoun  agrees  with  its  ante- 
cedent in  gender  and  number,  but  its  case  depends  on 
the  construction  of  the  sentence  in  which  it  stands  :  as, 

Hippias  gloriatus  est  anulum  quern  haberet,  pallium  qu5  amictus,  soc- 
cos  quibus  indiitus  esset,  se  sua  manu  confecisse,  Hippias  prided hitnself 
that  he  had  made  with  his  owfi  hand  the  rini^  that  he  wore,  the  cloak  in 
which  he  was  wrapped,  and  the  slippers  that  he  had  on. 

825.  (1803.)  When  the  relative  refers  to  two  or  more  antecedents  of 
different  gender,  its  gender  is  determined  lii<e  that  of  a  predicate  ad- 
jective.    See  478-481. 

826.  (1806.)  With  verbs  of  indeterminate  meaning  (460).  the  relative 
pronoun  sometimes  agrees  with  the  predicate  substantive:  as,  Thebae 
ipsae,  quod  Boeotiae  caput  est,  Thebes  itself,  which  is  the  capital  of  Boe- 
otia.  Often,  however,  with  the  antecedent :  as,  fliimen  quod  appellatur 
Tamesis,  the  river  which  is  called  the  Thames. 

827.  (1807.)  When  the  relative  is  subject,  its  verb  agrees  with  the 
person  of  the  antecedent:  as, 

haec  omnia  is  feci,  qui  sodalis  Dolabellae  eram,  all  this  I  did,  I  that 
was  Dolabella's  bosom  friend.  So  also  when  the  antecedent  is  implied 
in  a  possessive:  as,  cum  tu  nostra,  qui  remansissemus,  caede  te  conten- 
tum  esse  dicebas,  when  you  said  you  were  satisfied  with  murdering  us^ 
who  had  staid  behind. 

828.  (1809.)  A  new  substantive  added  in  explanation  of  an  antecedent 
is  put  after  the  relative,  and  in  the  same  case :  as,  ad  Amanum  con- 
tendl,  qui  mons  erat  hostium  plenus,  I  pushed  on  to  Amanus,  a  mountain 
that  was  packed  with  the  enemy. 

829.  (1810.)  An  adjective,  especially  a  comparative,  superlative,  or 

176 


The  Relative  Sentence  [830-834 

numeral,  explanatory  of  a  substantive  in  the  main  sentence,  is  often  put 
in  the  relative  sentence  :  as, 

paliis  quae  perpetua  intercedebat  Romanos  ad  Insequendum  tardabat, 
a  niorass,  that  lay  unbroken  between,  hindered  the  Romans  from  pursuit. 
de  servis  suis  quem  habuit  fidelissimum,  ad  regem  misit,  of  his  slaves  he 
sent  the  king  the  most  trusty  that  he  had. 

830.  (181 1.)  When  reference  is  made  to  the  substance  of  a 
sentence,  the  neuter  quod  is  used,  or  more  commonly  id  quod, 
either  usually  in  parenthesis  :  as, 

intellegitur,  id  quod  iarn  ante  dixi,  imprudente  L.  Siilla  scelera  haec 
fieri,  //  is  plain,  as  I  have  said  once  before,  that  these  crimes  are  com- 
mitted without  the  cognizance  of  Sulla. 

MOODS  IN  THE  RELATIVE  SENTENCE 

831.  (18 1 2.)  The  relative  is  sometimes  equivalent  to  a  con- 
ditional protasis.  When  thus  used,  it  may  have  either  the 
indicative  or  the  subjunctive,  as  the  sense  requires:  as, 

quisquis  hiic  venerit,  pugnos  edet,  whoever  comes  this  way  shall  ha7>e 
a  taste  of  fists  (933).  haec  qui  videat,  nonne  cogatur  confiteri  deos  esse? 
whoso  should  see  this  would  be  forced,  wouldnt  he  ?  to  admit  the  existence 
of  gods  (936).  qui  videret,  equum  Troianura  introductum  diceret,  whoever 
saw  it  would  have  sworn  it  was  the  Trojan  horse  brought  in  (938). 

The  Indicative  Mood 

832.  (18 1 3.)  The  indicative  is  used  in  simple  decla- 
rations or  descriptions  introduced  by  a  relative :  as, 

reliqui,  qui  doml  manserunt,  se  alunt,  the  others,  that  stay  at  home, 
support  themselves,  quos  laborantes  conspexerat,  his  subsidia  submitte- 
bat,  to  such  as  he  saw  in  stress,  he  kept  sending  reinforcements. 

833.  (18 14.)  The  indicative  is  also  used  with  indefinite  relative  pro- 
nouns and  adverbs :  as,  quisquis  est,  whoever  he  may  be.  quacumque  iter 
fecit,  wherever  he  made  his  way. 

The  Subjunctive  Mood 

834.  (1816.)  Relative  pronoun  sentences  take  the 
subjunctive  to  denote  (i.)  a  purpose,  (2.)  a  character- 
istic or  result,  (3.)  a  cause  or  a  concession. 

M  177 


835-839]   Sentences:   The  Subordinate  Sentence 


Sentences  of  Purpose 

835.  (18 1 7.)  Relative  sentences  of  purpose  are  equivalent 

to  subjunctive  sentences  introduced  by  ut,  in  order  that,  to 

(891):  as, 

ea  qui  conficeret,  C.  Trebonium  relinquit,  he  left  Trebonius  to  manage 
this,  qualis  esset  natura  mentis,  qui  cognoscerent,  misit,  he  sent  some 
scouts  to  ascertain  what  the  character  of  the  mountain  was.  Sentences 
of  purpose  are  an  extension  of  the  subjunctive  of  desire  (710). 

Sentences  of  Characteristic  or  Result 

836.  (18 1 8.)  Relative   sentences  of  characteristic  or  result 

are  equivalent  to  subjunctive  sentences  introduced  by  ut,  so 

as  to,  so  that  (891). 

neque  is  sum,  qui  mortis  periculo  terrear,  but  I  am  not  the  man  to  be 
scared  by  datiger  of  death,  no  not  I.  seciitae  sunt  tempestates  quae  no- 
stros  in  castris  continerent,  there  followed  a  succession  of  storms  to  keep 
our  people  in  cajnp.  Sentences  of  result  are  an  extension  of  the  sub- 
junctive of  action  conceivable  (717). 

837.  (1 8 1 9.)  This  subjunctive  with  qui  is  often  used  with  dignus,  in- 
dignus,  or  idoneus,  usually  with  a  form  of  sum:  as,  Livianae  fabuiaenon 
satis  dignae  quae  iterum  legantur,  the  plays  of  Livius  are  not  worth  read- 
ing twice,  non  erit  idoneus  qui  ad  bellum  mittatur,  he  will  not  be  a  fit 
person  to  be  sent  to  the  war. 

838.  (182 1  f.)  Relative  sentences  after  assertions  or  ques- 
tions of  existence  or  non-existence  usually  take  the  subjunc- 
tive: as, 

sunt  qui  putent,  there  be  people  to  think,  or  soine  people  think.  nem5 
est  qui  nesciat,  there  is  nobody  that  doesnt  know,  sapientia  est  iina  quae 
maestitiam  pellat  ex  animis,  wisdom  is  the  only  thing  to  drive  sadness 
from  the  soul.  Such  expressions  takinj;  this  subjunctive  are:  est  qui; 
sunt  qui ;  nemo  est  qui ;  quis  est  qui ;  solus  or  iinus  est  qui ;  est  or  nihil 
est  quod,  etc.,  etc. 

Sentences  of  Cause  or  Concession 

839.  (1824.)  Relative  sentences  of  cause  or  of  concession 

178 


The  Relative  Sentence  [840-843 

are  equivalent  to  subjunctive  sentences  introduced  by  cum, 
since,  though  (863)  :  as, 

hospes,  qui  nihil  suspicaretur,  hominem  retinere  coepit,  the  friend, 
smce  he  suspected  nothmg,  tmdertook  to  hold  on  to  the  man.  6  fortunate 
adulescens,  qui  tuae  virtiitis  Homerum  praeconem  inveneris,  oh  youth 
thrice-blest,  tvith  Homer  trumpeter  of  thy  prowess.  Cicero,  qui  milites 
in  castris  continuisset,  quinque  cohortes  frumentatum  mittit,  though 
Cicero  had  kept  his  men  in  camp,  he  sends  five  cohorts  foraging. 

840.  (1827.)  The  causal  relative  is  often  introduced  by  quippe,  less 
frequently  by  ut,  or  ut  pote,  naturally :  as,  "  convivia  cum  patre  non 
inibat ;  "  quippe  qui  ne  in  oppidum  quidem  nisi  perraro  veniret,  ''he  never 
went  to  dinner-parties  with  his  father ;"  why,  of  course  not,  siftce  he 
never  wetit  to  a  simple  country  town  even,  except  very  rarely. 

841.  (1829.)  The  subjunctive  is  used  in  parenthetical  sentences  of 
restriction  :  as,  quod  sciam,  to  the  best  of  my  htowledge  and  belief,  quod 
sine  molestia  tua  fiat,  as  far  as  may  be  without  trouble  to  yourself . 

CORRELATIVE  SENTENCES 

842.  (183 1.)  Sentences   are  said  to  be  correlative  when    a 

relative  pronoun  or  adverb  has  a  corresponding  determinative 

or  demonstrative  pronoun  or  adverb  in  the  main  sentence. 

Thus,  the  ordinary  correlative  of  qui  is  is,  less  frequently  hie,  ille, 
idem.  Similarly  tot  ,  .  .  quot  are  used  as  correlatives;  also  quo  .  .  . 
eo,  quanto  .  .  .  tanto ;  quantum  .  .  .  tantum ;  tam  .  .  .  quam  ;  totiens 
.  .  .  quotiens ;  talis  .  .  .  qualis ;  ubi  .  .  .  ibi ;  ut  .  .  .  ita,  sic,  or  item ; 
cum  .  .  .  turn. 


THE  RELATIVE  INTRODUCING  A  MAIN  SENTENCE 

843-  (1835.)  Besides  the  ordinary  use  of  the  relative,  to  in- 
troduce a  subordinate  sentence,  it  is  often  used  like  hic,  or  is, 
or  like  et  is,  is  autem,  is  enim,  or  is  igitur,  to  append  a  fresh 
main  sentence  or  period  to  the  foregoing:  as, 

consilid  convocato  sententias  exquirere  coepit,  quo  in  consilio  non- 
nullae  hiiius  modi  sententiae  dicebantur,  calling  a  council  of  war,  he  pro- 
ceeded to  ask  their  opinion,  and  in  this  council  some  opiiiions  of  the  fol- 
lowing import  were  set  forth,     centuriones  hostes  vocare   coeperunt ; 

179 


844-84^]    Sejttences:   The  Subordmate  Sentence 

quorum  prog^edi  ausus  est  nemo,  the  officers  proceeded  to  call  the  enemy  ; 
but  not  a  man  of  them  ventured  to  step  forward. 

844.  (1836.)  From  this  use  of  the  relative  come  many  introductory 
formulas,  such  as  quo  facto,  qua  re  cognita,  quae  cum  ita  sint,  etc.,  etc. 


The  Conjunctional  Sentence 

845.  Conjunctional  sentences  are  introduced  by  the  following  par- 
ticles, called  conjunctive  particles  (783):  quod,  quia;  cum;  quoniam; 
quam  ;  quamquam,  quamvis  ;  antequam,  priusquam,  postquam,  ubY ;  ut 
(ne) ;  quo,  quominus  ;  quin ;  dum,  donee,  quoad,  quamdiu  ;  quando  ;  si. 


quod 

846.  (1838.)  The  conjunctive  particle  quod  has  both  a  declarative 
sense,  that,  and  a  causal  sense,  because.  In  both  senses  it  regularly  in- 
troduces the  indicative  ^"^1).  For  special  reasons,  however,  the  sub- 
junctive is  often  used,  and  particularly  in  indirect  discourse  (788). 

847.  (1842.)  quod,  as  to  what,  or  that,  is  used,  especially  at  the  begin- 
ning of  a  sentence,  to  introduce  a  fact  on  which  something  is  to  be  said, 
often  by  way  of  protest  or  refutation  :  as, 

verum  quod  tu  dicis,  non  te  mi  irasci  decet,  but  as  to  what  you  say,  it 
isitt  right  tJiat  you  should  get  pro7>okcd  with  vie.  quod  multitudinem 
Germanorum  in  Galliam  traducat,  id  se  sui  muniendi  causa  facere,  as  to 
his  movifig  a  great  many  Germans  over  to  Gaul,  that  he  did  for  self -pro- 
tection (788). 

848.  (1844  f.)  quod,  that,  the  fact  that,  is  often  used 
in  subordinate  sentences  which  serve  to  complete  the 
sense  of  the  main  sentence. 

The  sentence  with  quod  may  represent  a  subject,  as  with  accedit ; 
an  object,  as  with  praetereo,  etc. ;  frequently  it  is  in  apposition  with  a 
demonstrative  or  an  appellative  :  as, 

accedebat,  quod  suos  ab  se  llberds  abstractos  dolebant,  there  was 
added  this  fact,  that  they  latnented  that  their  oaun  children  were  torn 
from  thejn  ;  or  less  clumsily,  then  too  they  lamented.  Caesar  senatus 
in  eum  beneficia  commemoravit,  quod  rex  appellatus  esset  a  senatu, 
Caesar  told  off  the  kindnesses  of  the  senate  to  the  man,  the  fact  that  "he 
had  been  styled  king  by  the  senate"  (788).  duas  res  consecutus  est,  quod 
animos   centurionum  devinxit   et   militum  voluntates  redemit,  thus  he 

180 


Conjunctional  Sentences :  quod     [849-852 

killed  two  birds  with  one  stone :  he  wo7i  the  hea7'ts  of  the  officers,  and 
he  bought  golden  opinions  of  the  rank  and  file. 

849.  (1850,)  With  verbs  of  doing  or  happening,  accompanied  by 
some  word  of  manner  (as  bene  or  male),  quod  introduces  a  verb  of  coin- 
cident action  :  as, 

bene  facis  quod  me  adiuvas,  you  are  very  kind  in  helpitig  ?ne.  accidit 
perincommode  quod  eum  nusquam  vidisti,  unfortunately  it  happefted  that 
you  saw  him  ?iowhere. 

850.  (185 1.)  quod,  that,  is  sometimes  used  to  denote  cause  with  verbs 
of  emotion  :  as,  gaudeo  quod  te  interpellavl,  Fm  glad  that  I  interrupted 
you.  Such  verbs  are :  gaudeo,  laetor ;  miror ;  doleo,  irascor,  etc.  For 
the  accusative  with  the  infinitive,  see  964. 

851.  (1853.)  Causal  quod  (or  quia),  becatcse,  intro- 
duces a  cause,  or  a  reason  or  motive  :  as, 

With  the  indicative  (787):  HelvetilreliquosGallds  virtute  praecedunt, 
quod  fere  cotidianis  proeliis  cum  Germanis  contendunt,  the  Helvetians 
outs/ii7ie  the  rest  of  the  Gauls  in  bravery,  because  they  do  battle  with  the 
Germans  almost  every  day.  T.  Manlius  Torquatus  filium  suum,  quod  is 
contra  imperium  in  hostem  pugnaverat,  necari  iussit,  Torquatus  ordered 
his  own  son  to  be  put  to  death,  because  the  young  man  hadfoi/ght  with  the 
enemy  contrary  to  orders.  Here  pugnavisset  would  have  given  the  rea- 
son as  the  father's  (791),  not  the  writer's. 

With  the  subjunctive,  on  the  principle  of  indirect  discourse  (791): 
noctii  ambulabat  in  publicd  Themistocles,  quod  somnum  capere  non  pos- 
set, Themistocles  used  to  walk  the  streets  nights,  "  because  he  could  7iot 
sleep,''  given  as  Themistocles's  reason;  the  writer's  would  be  poterat. 
Sometimes  a  verb  of  saying  or  thinking  is  put,  illogically,  in  the  sub- 
junctive: as,  Bellovaci  suum  numerum  non  contulerunt,  quod  se  suo  arbi- 
trid  bellum  esse  gestures  dicerent,  the  Bellovacajis  would  not  put  i7i  their 
proper  quota,  sayi7ig  they  7nea7it  to  7nake  war  07i  their  own  resp07isibility. 

852.  (1855.)  An  untenable  reason  is  introduced  by  non  quod,  non  quo, 
or  non  quia.  The  valid  reason  follows,  with  sed  quod,  sed  quia,  or  with 
sed  and  a  fresh  main  sentence. 

The  mood  is  usually  subjunctive  (788) :  as,  pugiles  ingemlscunt,  non 
quod  doleant,  sed  quia  prdfundenda  v5ce  omne  corpus  intenditur,  boxers 
grunt  a7id  groan,  not  because  they  feel  pai7t,  but  because  by  explosion  of 
voice  the  whole  system  gets  braced  up.  The  negative  7iot  that  .  .  .  7iot,  is 
expressed  by  non  quod  non,  non  quo  non,  or  non  quin. 

181 


853-S57]    Soitences :   The  Subordinate  Sentence 


cum 

853'  ('859.)  cum,  used  as  a  conjunctive  particle  (783),  has  a  temporal 
meaning,  w/ien,  which  readily  passes  over  to  an  explanatory  or  causal 
meaning,  in  that,  since  or  alt/iouq^/i. 

Temporal  cum     j 

WITH   THE   INDICATI^^' 

854.  (i860.)  cum,  ivhen,  whenever,  if,  of  indefinite  time, 
may  introduce  any  tense  of  the  indicative  required  by  the 
context :  as, 

Romae  videor  esse,  cum  tuas  litteras  lego,  /  always  fancy  myself  in 
Rome,  w/ien  I  am  reading  a  letter  from  you.  his  cum  funes  comprehensi 
adductique  erant,  praerumpebantur,  ei^ery  time  the  lines  were  caught  by 
these  and  hauled  taut,  they  would  part.  The  subjunctive  is  used,  chiefly 
by  late  writers,  rarely  by  Cicero  and  Caesar,  to  express  repeated  past 
action  (794) :  as.  cum  in  convivium  venisset,  si  quicquam  caelati  adspexe- 
rat,  manus  abstinere  non  poterat,  when  he  went  to  a  dinner  party,  if  he 
ever  caught  sight  of  a  bit  of  chased  work,  he  nei.)er  could  keep  his  hands 

855.  (1862.)  cum,  zvheji,  of  definite  time,  ref^ularly  intro- 
duces the  indicative  of  any  action  not  of  past  time:  as, 

sed  de  his  etiam  rebus,  otiosi  cum  erimus,  loquemur,  but  we  ruill  talk 
of  this  when  we  have  time,  cum  ego  P.  Cranium  testem  produxero,  re- 
feliito,  SI  poteris,  7£///tv/  I  put  Granius  on  the  witness  stand,  refute  him 
if  you  can. 

856  (1863  ff.)  With  cum,  when,  the  indicative  is 
used  of  definite  past  time  to  date  the  action  of  the  main 

clause :  as, 

cum  Caesar  in  Galliam  venit,  alterlus  factidnis  prlncipes  erant  Aedul. 
whefi  Caesar  cajne  to  Gaul,  the  leaders  of  one  party  were  the  Aeduans. 
eo  cum  venio,  praetor  quiescebat,  %vhen  I  got  there,  the  praetor  was  tak- 
ing a  nap  (733).  **  per  tuas  statuas  "  vero  cum  dixit,  vehementius  risi- 
mus,  but  when  he  uttered  the  words  '' by  your  statues,"  we  burst  into  a 
louder  laugh. 

857.  (1869.)  An  indicative  clause  with  cum,  usually  ex- 
pressing sudden  or  unexpected  action,  sometimes  contains  the 

182 


Conjunctional  Sentences :  CUm       [858-860 

main  idea,  and  is  put  last.     The  main  clause  often  contains 
vix,  aegre,  hardly,  or  nondum,  not  yet. 

dixerat  hoc  ille,  cum  puer  nuntiavit  venire  Laelium,  scarcely  had  he 
said  this,  when  a  slave  antwiinced  that  Laelius  was  coming,  vix  ea  fatus 
eram,  gemitu  cum  talia  reddit,  scarce  had  I  spoke  the  words,  whe?i  with  a 
groaii  he  answers  thus. 

858.  (1872.)  With  cum,  when,  the  imperfect  or  plu- 
perfect subjunctive  is  used  to  describe  the  circum- 
stances under  which  the  action  of  the  main  clause  took 
place :  as, 

Antigonus  in  proelid,  cum  adversus  Seleucum  et  Lysimachum  dlmica- 
ret,  occisus  est,  Antigonus  was  killed  iti  battle  fighting  against  Seleucus 
and  Lysimachus.  hie  pagus,  cum  domo  exisset  patrum  nostrorum  me- 
moria,  L.  Cassium  consulem  interfecerat,  this  canton,  sallying  out  fro?n 
home  in  our  fathers  recollection,  had  put  Cassius,  the  consul,  to  death. 
cum  rex  Pyrrhus  populo  Romano  bellum  intulisset  cumque  de  imperio 
certamen  esset  cum  rege  potenti,  perfuga  ab  eo  venit  in  castra  Fabricii, 
kijig  Pyrrhus  having  made  war  on  the  Rofnan  ftation,  afid  there  being  a 
struggle  for  sovereignty  with  a  powerful  king,  a  deserter  from  hiin  cajne 
info  Fabricius s  camp.  In  this  use,  as  the  examples  show,  cum  with 
the  subjunctive  is  often  best  translated  by  a  participle  in  -ing. 

859.  (1873.)  The  difference  in  meaning  between  cum  with  the  indica- 
tive and  cum  with  the  subjunctive  may  be  illustrated  by  the  following 
examples : 

Gallo  narravi,  cum  proxime  Romae  ful,  quid  audissem,  /  told  Gallus, 
when  I  was  last  ifi  Rome,  what  I  had  heard  (856).  a.  d.  iii  kal.  Maias 
cum  essem  in  Ciimano,  accepi  tuas  litteras,  /  received  your  letter  on  the 
twenty-ninth  of  April,  being  in  7ny  villa  at  Cumae  (858). 

Explanatory  and  Causal  cum 

860.  (1874.)  The  indicative  is  often  used  with  explanatory  cum  when 
the  action  of  the  clause  with  cum  is  coincident  with  that  of  the  main 
clause.  In  this  use,  cum  passes  from  the  meaning  oiwhen  to  that  or  in 
that:  as, 

cum  quiescunt,  probant,  in  that  they  are  inactive,  they  approve,  i.  e. 
their  inaction  is  approval,  cum  tacent,  clamant,  their  silence  is  as  tell- 
ing as  a  shout.     P'or  a  similar  use  of  quod,  see  849. 

183 


861-866]  Sentences:  The  Subordinate  Seiiteiice 

86i.  (1875.)  Explanatory  cum  is  also  used  with  verbs  of  emotion; 
likewise  with  gratulor  and  gratias  ago:  as,  gratulor  tibl,  cum  tantum 
vales  apud  Dolabellam,  /  i^ive  you  joy  that  you  stand  so  well  with  Dola- 
bella.  tibi  maximas  gratias  ago,  cum  tantum  litterae  meae  potuerunt,  / 
thank  you  most  heartily  in  that  my  letter  had  such  influence.  For  similar 
uses  of  quod,  see  850. 

862.  (1876.)  Explanatory  cum  is  also  used  in  the  sense  of  since,  al- 
though, or  even  though. 

863.  (1877.)  cum,  since,  although,  even  though,  usu- 
ally introduces  the  subjunctive:  as, 

Aedui  cum  se  defendere  non  possent,  legatos  ad  Caesarem  mittunt, 

since  the  Aeduans  could  not  defend  themselves,  they  sent  ambassadors  to 
Caesar,  fuit  perpetuo  pauper,  cum  divitissimus  esse  posset,  he  was  al- 
ways poor,  whereas  he  might  have  been  very  rich,  ipse  Cicero,  cum  tenu- 
issima  valetudine  esset,  ne  nocturnum  quidem  sibY  tempus  ad  quietem  re- 
linquebat,  Cicero  himself,  though  he  was  in  extremely  delicate  health,  did 
7wt  allow  himself  even  the  night-time  for  rest. 

cuAi  .  .  .  tum 

864.  (1 88 1.)  A  clause  with  cum  is  often  followed  by  an  emphatic  main 
clause  introduced  by  tum. 

cum  collegae  levavit  infamiam,  tum  sibf  gloriam  ingentem  peperit,  he 
relieved  his  colleague  from  disgrace,  and  luhat  is  more  he  won  mighty 
glory  for  himself .  By  abridgement  of  the  sentence,  cum  .  .  .  tum  come 
to  be  copulative  conjunctions  (755):  as,  movit  patres  cdnscriptos  cum 
causa  tum  auctor,  both  the  cause  and  its  supporter  touched  the  conscript 
fathers. 

quoniam 

865.  (1882.)  quoniam,  compounded  of  quom  (the  older  form  of  cum) 
and  iam,  when  now,  refers  primarily  to  time,  but  is  seldom  so  used.  The 
temporal  meaning  passed  into  an  exclusively  causal  meaning,  since.  In 
both  meanings  it  regularly  introduces  the  indicative  (787).  For  special 
reasons,  however,  the  subjunctive  is  used,  as  in  indirect  discourse  (788). 

866.  (1884.)  quoniam,  since,  seeing  that,  now  that,  intro- 
duces a  reason  :  as, 

With  the  indicative:  vos,  Quirites,  quoniam  iam  nox  est,  in  vestra 
tecta  discedite,  do  you,  citizens,  since  it  is  now  grown  dark,  depart  and 

184 


Conjunctional  Sentences :  quam     [867-871 

go  to  your  own  several  ho7nes.  quoniam  de  genere  belli  dixi,  nunc  de 
magnitudine  pauca  dicam,  since  I  have  finished  speaking  about  the  char- 
acter of  the  war,  I  will  now  speak  briefly  about  its  extent. 

With  the  subjunctive  in  indirect  discourse  (791):  crebris  Pompei 
litterls  castigabantur,  quoniam  primo  venientem  Caesarem  non  prohibuis- 
ssnt,  they  were  rebuked  in  numerous  letters  of  Ponipey,  ''because  they 
had  not  kept  Caesar  off  as  soon  as  he  came." 


quam 

867.  (1888.)  quam,  as  ox  than,  introduces  the  indicative  in  sentences 
of  comparison.  For  special  reasons,  however,  the  subjunctive  is  used, 
as  of  action  conceivable  ;  see  871. 

But  usually  sentences  of  comparison  are  abridged  by  the  omission 
of  the  verb  (617). 

With  the  Indicative 

868.  (1889.)  quam,  as,  is  used  in  a  comparative  sentence, 
generally  witii  tam  as  correlative  in  the  main  clause  :  as, 

quid  est  oratorl  tam  necessarium  quam  vox  ?  what  is  so  indispensable 
to  the  speaker  as  voice?  non  minus  .  .  .  quam,  7io  less  than,  just  as 
much,  or  non  magis  .  .  .  quam,  Just  as  little  or  just  as  much,  is  often 
preferred  to  tam  .  .  .  quam  :  as,  non  magis  mihX  deerit  inimicus  quam 
Verri  defuit,  /  shall  lack  a?i  enemy  as  little  as  Verres  did. 

869.  (1892.)  The  highest  possible  degree  is  expressed  by  quam  and  a 
superlative  with  or  without  a  form  of  possum  (679):  as, 

quam  maximls  potest  itineribus  in  Galliam  contendit,  he  pushes  into 
Gaul  by  as  rapid  marches  as  he  can.  constituerunt  iumentorum  quam 
maximum  numerum  coemere,  they  determined  to  buy  up  the  greatest  pos- 
sible number  of  beasts  of  burden. 

870.  (1894.)  quam,  tJian,  is  used  in  a  comparative  sentence, 
with  a  comparative  in  the  main  clause  :  as, 

pliira  dixi  quam  volui,  /  have  said  more  than  I  intended,  doctrina 
paulo  durior  quam  natura  patitur,  principles  somewhat  sterner  thaji  nat- 
ure doth  support,     potius  sero  quam  numquam,  better  late  tha?t  7tever. 

With  the  Subjunctive 

871.  (1896.)  The  subjunctive  of  action  conceivable  (717)  is 

185 


872-875]    Sentences:   The  Subordinate  Sentence 

used  with  quam  or  quam  ut  after  comparatives  denoting  dis- 
proportion :  as, 

quicquid  erat  oneris  Seg^estanis  imponebat,  aliquanto  amplius  quam 
ferre  possent,  he  would  impose  every  possible  burden  on  the  Segestans,  fur 
too  much  for  them  to  bear,  quis  n5n  intellegit  Canachi  signa  rigidiora 
esse,  quam  ut  imitentur  veritatem  ?  who  does  not  feel  that  the  statues  of 
Canachus  are  too  stiff  to  be  true  to  ftature  ? 


quamquam 

872.  (19CX).)  quamquam,  allhoitgh,  introduces  the  indicative 

in  the  concession  of  a  definite  fact  :  as, 

quamquam  premuntur  aere  alieno,  dominationem  tamen  exspectant, 
though  they  are  staggering  under  debt,  they  yet  look  forward  to  being 
lords  and  tnasters.  quamquam  non  venit  ad  flnem  tam  audax  inceptum, 
tamen  haud  omnino  vanum  fuit,  though  the  bold  attempt  did  not  attain  its 
purpose,  yet  it  was  not  altogether  fruitless. 

873.  (1900.)  In  poetry  and  late  prose,  quamquam,  although,  may  in- 
troduce the  subjunctive  in  the  concession  of  a  definite  fact:  as.  haud 
cunctatus  est  Germanicus,  quamquam  fingi  ea  intellegeret,  Germanicus 
did  not  delay,  though  he  was  aware  this  was  all  made  up. 


quamvis 

874.  (1903.)  quamvis  or  quamvis  is  used  as  an  indefinite  adverb,  as 
much  as  you  please,  and  is  often  joined  with  an  adjective  or  other  adverb 
to  take  the  place  of  a  superlative :  as, 

quamvis  pauci  adire  audent,  the  merest  handful  dares  attack,  quam- 
vis callide,  ei^er  so  craftily.  From  an  adverb,  quamvis  became  a  con- 
junction (875). 

875.  (1905.)  The  subjunctive  with  the  conjunction  quam- 
vis, Jioiucvcr  much,  tJioiigJi,  denotes  action  merely  assumed : 
as, 

quamvis  sint  homines  qui  Cn.  Carbonem  oderint,  tamen  hi  debent  quid 
metuendum  sit  cogitare,  though  there  may  be  men  who  hate  Carbo,  still 
these  men  ought  to  consider  what  they  have  to  fear,  non  enim  possis, 
quamvis  excellas,  you  may  not  have  the  power,  however  eminent  you 
may  be. 

186 


Conjunctional  Sentences:  antequam  [876-880 

876.  (1906.)  quamvis,  tn'en  if,  thottgh,  is  also  sometimes  used  with 
the  indicative  :  as,  erat  dignitate  regia,  quamvis  carebat  nomine,  he  had 
the  authority  of  a  king,  though  ?iot  the  title. 


antequam,  priusquam 

877.  (191 1.)  antequam  and  priusquam  accompany  both  the  indicative 
and  the  subjunctive. 

ante  and  prius  properly  belong  to  the  main  clause,  and  regularly 
stand  with  it  if  it  is  negative  ;  but  otherwise  they  are  usually  attracted 
to  the  subordinate  clause. 

878.  (191 5.)  In  present  or  future  statements,  antequam  and 
priusquam  introduce  a  present,  either  indicative  or  subjunc- 
tive; in  future  statements  the  future  perfect  is  also  used:  as, 

antequam  ad  sententiam  redeo,  de  me  pauca  dicam,  before  I  come  hack 
to  the  motion,  I  will  say  a  little  about  myself,  antequam  venial  in  Pon- 
tum,  litteras  ad  Cn.  Pompeium  mittet,  before  he  reaches  Pontus,  he  will 
send  a  letter  to  Pompey.  si  quid  mihi  acciderit  priusquam  h5c  tantum 
mail  videro,  //  anything  shall  befall  me  before  I  see  this  great  calamity. 

879.  (191 7.)  In  past  statements  antequam  and  priusquam 
introduce  the  perfect  indicative;  or,  less  frequently,  an  imper- 
fect subjunctive:  as, 

omnia  ista  ante  facta  sunt  quam  iste  Italiam  attigit,  all  these  ificidents 
occurred  before  the  defendatit  set  foot  in  Italy,  neque  prius  fugere  desti- 
terunt  quam  ad  Rhenum  pervenerunt,  and  they  did  not  stay  their  flight 
before  they  fairly  arrived  at  the  Rhine,  antequam  cdnsules  in  Etruriam 
pervenirent,  Galli  venerunt,  before  the  consids  arrived  in  Etruria,  the 
Gauls  came.  This  use  of  the  imperfect  subjunctive  must  not  be  con- 
founded with  that  mentioned  in  880. 

880.  (1919  f.)  When  the  action  did  not  occur,  or  when  pur- 
pose is  expressed,  priusquam  regularly  introduces  the  imper- 
fect subjunctive  in  past  statements  :  as, 

plerique  interfecti  sunt,  priusquam  occultum  hostem  viderent,  7iiost  of 
them  were  slain  before  they  could  see  the  hidden  enemy,  pervenit  prius- 
quam Pompeius  sentire  posset,  he  arrived  before  Pompey  should  be  able  to 
learn  of  his  coming.  The  pluperfect  subjunctive  is  rarely  introduced  by 
antequam  or  priusquam:  as,  avertit  equ5s  in  castra  priusquam   pabula 

187 


88 1-885 J    Sentences:  The  Subordinate  Sentence 

gustassent  Troiae  Xanthumque  bibissent,  he  drave  the  horses  off  to  camp, 
or  ever  they  should  taste  of  Trojds  grass  and  X an  thus  drink. 


postquam,  ubi,  ut,  cum  primum,  simul  atque 

881.  (1925.)  In  narration  the  perfect  indicative  is 
regularly  used  in  clauses  introduced  by  postquam, 
ubi,  ut,  cum  primum,  simul  atque  :  as, 

postquam  tuas  litteras  legl,  Postumia  tua  me  convenit,  after  I  read 
your  letter,  your  Postumia  called  on  me.  ubi  se  diutius  duci  intellexit, 
graviter  eos  accusat,  when  he  came  to  see  that  he  was  put  off  a  good  while, 
he  takes  them  roundly  to  task,  cum  primum  Cretae  litus  attigit,  nuntios 
misit,  as  soo?t  as  he  touched  the  shore  of  Crete,  he  sent  messengers,  quera 
simul  atque  oppidani  conspexerunt,  murum  complete  coeperunt,  as  soon  as 
the  garrison  espied  him,  they  began  to  man  the  wall. 

882.  (1926.)  The  present  indicative  of  vivid  narration  (733)  some- 
times occurs:  as.  ubi  neutri  transeundi  initium  faciunt,  Caesar  suos  in 
castra  rediixit,  neither  party  taking  the  itiitiative  in  crossing,  Caesar 
marched  his  men  back  to  camp. 

883.  (1929.)  The  pluperfect,  less  frequently  the  perfect,  with  post- 
quam is  used  attributively  with  nouns  denoting  time. 

In  this  use  post  is  often  separated  from  quam,  and  two  constructions 
are  possible:  Ablative:  ann5  post  quam  vota  erat  aedes  Monetae  dedi- 
catur,  the  temple  of  Moneta  is  dedicated  a  year  after  it  was  vowed.  Ac- 
cusative, with  an  ordinal,  and  post  as  a  preposition:  post  diem  tertium 
gesta  res  est  quam  dixerat,  the  deed  was  done  the  next  day  but  one  after 
he  said  it. 

884.  (1930.)  The  imperfect  with  postquam  expresses  action  continu- 
ing into  the  time  of  the  main  action.  Such  a  clause  usually  denotes  the 
cause  of  the  main  action :  as.  Appius,  postquam  nemo  adibat,  domum  se 
recepit,  Appius  finding  that  nobody  presented  himself,  went  back  home. 

885.  (1932.)  ub!,  ut,  or  simul  atque  (ac)  often  introduces  a 
clause  denoting  indefinite  or  repeated  action  :  as, 

omnes  profecto  mulieres  te  amant,  ut  quaeque  aspexit,  all  the  ladies 
love  you,  every  time  one  spies  you.  Messanam  ut  quisque  nostrum  vene- 
rat,  haec  visere  solebat,  any  Roman,  who  visited  Afessana,  invariably 
went  to  see  these  statues,    hostes,  ubi  aliquos  singulares  c5nspexerant, ' 

188 


Conjunctional  Sentences :  ut         [886-891 

adoriebantur,  enery  time  the  etiemy  saw  some  detached  parties,  they  woidd 
charge.  The  subjunctive  also  is  found  with  ubi  and  ut  quisque  in  cases 
of  repeated  past  action  (794). 

886.  (1924.)  In  clauses  introduced  by  postea  quam  or  postquam,  the 
imperfect  or  pluperfect  subjunctive  is  rarely  used  :  as,  qui  postea  quam 
maximas  aedificasset  classes  et  se  Bosporanis  bellum  inferre  simularet, 
legatds  misit,  after  biiildi7ig  enormous  Jieets,  pretettding  he  was  going  to 
make  war  on  the  Bosporani,  he  setit  envoys. 


uti  or  ut 


887.  (1935.)  uti  or  ut,  used  as  a  conjunctive  particle,  accompanies 
both  the  indicative  and  the  subjunctive. 

WITH  THE  INDICATIVE 
ut,  as 

888.  (1937.)  The  indicative  is  used  in  a  comparative  clause 

introduced  by  uti  or  ut,  as, 

perge  ut  instituisti,  go  on  as  you  have  begun,  ut  sementem  feceris, 
ita  metes,  as  you  sow,  y  are  like  to  reap. 

889-  (1939.)  ut  quisque,  commonly  with  a  superlative,  is  used  in  a 
comparative  period  of  equality,  with  ita  or  sic  and  commonly  another 
superlative  in  the  main  clause:  as,  ut  quaeque  res  est  turpissima,  sic 
maxime  vindicanda  est,  the  more  disgraceful  a  thing  is,  the  more  cjn- 
phatically  docs  it  call  for  punishjneftt. 

890.  (1940.)  ut  often  introduces  a  parenthetical  idea,  particularly  a 
general  truth  or  a  habit  which  accounts  for  the  special  fact  expressed 
in  the  main  sentence  :  as, 

excitabat  fluctus  in  simpulo,  ut  dicitur,  Gratidius,  Gratidius  was  rais- 
ing a  tempest  in  a  teapot,  as  the  saying  is.  horum  auctoritate  adducti, 
ut  sunt  Gallorum  subita  consilia,  Trebium  retinent,  influenced  by  these 
people  they  detain  Irebius,  as  might  have  been  expected,  sudde?t  resolu- 
tio7is  being  always  characteristic  of  the  Gauls. 

WITH    THE   SUBJUNCTIVE 

uti  or  ut 
NEGATIVE  ut  ne,  ne,  or  ut  non 

891.  (1947.)  The  subjunctive  with  ut  is:  (A.)  That  of  action  desired 
(710),  in   clauses   of   purpose;    in    these   the    negative    is    ne  (779),  or 


892-895J   Sentences:   The  Subordinate  Sentence 

sometimes  ut  ne,  and  afid  that  not,  neve  or  neu,  rarely  neque  or  nee.  ut 
non  is  used  when  the  negative  belongs  to  a  single  word.  (B.)  That  of 
action  conceivable  {7^7)'  in  clauses  of  result;  in  these  the  negative  is 
ut  non,  ut  nemo,  ut  nullus,  etc. 

892.  (1948.)  Final  and  consecutive  clauses  with  ut  are  of  two  classes: 
I.  Complementary  clauses,  that  is,  such  as  are  necessary  to  complete 
the  sense  of  certain  specific  verbs  or  expressions;  such  clauses  have  the 
value  of  a  substantive,  and  may  represent  a  subject,  an  object,  or  any 
oblique  case.  II.  Pure  final  or  consecutive  clauses,  in  which  the  pur- 
pose or  result  of  any  action  may  be  expressed,  and  which  are  not  essen- 
tial to  complete  the  sense  of  a  verb. 

Purpose 
Complp:mentary  Final  Clauses 

893'.  (1949.)  The  subjunctive  with  ut  or  ne  is  used 
in  clauses  which  serve  to  complete  tlie  sense  of  verbs 
of  will  or  aim. 

894.  (1950.)  Verbs  of  will  include  those  of  desire,  request, 

advice,  resolution,  command,  or  permission. 

Will  may  be  suggested  by  a  general  verb  or  expression,  of  which 
some  of  the  commonest  are:  desire:  void  (malo),  opto.  request:  peto, 
postulo,  fiagito,  oro,  rogo,  precor.  advice :  suadeo,  persuaded,  persuade, 
moneo,  bid,  admoneo,  hortor,  c^nseb,  propose,  vote,  resolution  :  decerno, 
c6nstitu5,  placet,  command:  impero,  praecipid,  mando.  permission: 
concede,  permitto,  non  patior. 

895.  (195 1.)  Verbs  of  aim  include  those  of  striving,  accom- 
plishing, or  inducing;  such  are: 

striving :  id  ago,  operam  do,  laboro,  nitor,  contendo,  studeo.  accom- 
plishing: facio  (efficio,  perficio),  impetro.  inducing:  moved,  excito,  im- 
pello. 

Examples 

With  verbs  of  will :  Ubii  orabant,  ut  sibi  auxilium  ferret,  the  Ubians 
begged  that  he  would  help  them,  hortatus  est  uti  in  officio  maneret,  he 
urged  htm  to  reinain  steadfast  in  duty,  suis  imperavit  ne  quod  omnlno 
telum  reicerent,  he  ordered  his  men  not  to  thro^v  any  weapon  at  all  bach. 
huic  permisit,  uti  in  his  locis  legionem  conlocaret,  he  allowed  this  man  to 
quarter  his  legion  in  these  parts. 

190 


Conjunctional  Sentences  :  ut        [896-^ 

With  verbs  of  aim  :  neque  id  agere  ut  exercitum  teneat  ipse,  sed  ne 
ill!  habeant  quo  contra  se  uti  possint,  a»d  that  his  object  was  not  to  hold 
the  army  himself,  but  to  prevent  the  other  side  fro7n  having  an  army 
ivhich  they  could  use  agai7tst  him.  xii  navibus  amissis,  reliquis  ut  navi- 
garl  commode  posset  effecit,  a  dozen  vessels  were  lost,  but  he  managed  to 
sail  comfortably  with  the  rest.  Aulum  spe  pactionis  perpulit,  uti  in  abdi- 
tas  regiones  sese  insequeretur,  Aulus  he  induced  by  the  hope  of  a  pecuniary 
settlemoit  to  folloiv  him  to  distattt  regions. 

896.  (1952  f.)  Many  of  these  verbs  often  have  a  coordinated  sub- 
junctive (778-782).  The  verbs  of  resolving,  statuo,  constituo,  and  de- 
cern©, and  of  striving,  nitor,  and  tempto,  have  usually  the  complementary 
infinitive  (955),  unless  a  new  subject  is  introduced.  For  volo  (malo),  and 
cupio,  see  also  965 ;  for  iubeo,  veto,  sin5,  and  patior,  968. 

897.  (1957.)  The  subjunctive  with  ut  or  ne  is  used 
in  clauses  which  complete  expressions  of  fear,  anxiety, 
or  danger. 

ut,  that  not,  may  not,  and  ne,  lest,  may,  were  originally  signs  of  a 
wish  (710):  thus,  vereor,  ut  fiat,  /  am  afraid;  may  it  come  to  pass, 
acquires  the  meaning  of  I  am  afraid  it  may  not  come  to  pass  (779) ;  and 
vereor,  ne  fiat,  /  am  afraid ;  jnay  it  not  come  to  pass,  of  /  ain  afraid  it 
may  come  to  pass. 

at  vereor  ut  placari  possit,  but  I'm  afraid  she  cant  be  reconciled. 
ne  uxor  resciscat  metuit,  he  is  afraid  his  wife  7nay  find  it  out.  metuo 
ne  nos  nosmet  perdiderimus  uspiam,  /'w  afraid  we've  lost  ourselves  sofne- 
where.  ne  non  is  often  used  for  ut,  and  regularly  when  the  expression 
of  fear  is  negative :  as,  non  vereor  ne  hoc  officium  meum  P.  Servilio  non 
probem,  /  have  no  fear  but  I  may  make  my  services  acceptable  in  the  eyes 
of  Servilius. 

898.  (i960.)  The  subjunctive  with  ne  is  used  in  clauses 
which  serve  to  complete  the  sense  of  verbs  of  avoiding,  hin- 
dering, and  resisting. 

Such  are  the  following  which  often  have  quominus  (909) :  deterred, 
impedio,  prohibeo,  teneo,  resisto,  recuso.  Some  of  the  above  verbs 
when  preceded  by  a  negative  also  take  quin  (913). 

.  per  eos,  ne  causam  diceret,  se  eripuit,  thanks  to  this  display  ofretai?t- 
ers  he  succeeded  itt  avoiding  trial,  plura  ne  scribam,  dolore  impedior, 
grief  prez'eftts  me  from  writing  more,  ne  qua  sibi  statua  poneretur 
restitit,  he  objected  to  having  a  statue  erected  in  his  honor. 

191 


899~90-]   Sentences:   The  Subordinate  Sentence 
Pure  Final  Clauses 

899.  (196 1.)  The  subjunctive  with  ut  or  ne  is  used 

to  denote  the  purpose  of  the  main  action. 

vigilas  de  nocte,  ut  tuls  consultoribus  respondeas,  you  have  to  get  up 
early  in  the  morning  to  give  advice  to  your  clients,  maiores  nostii  ab 
aratro  adduxerunt  Cincinnatum,  ut  dictator  esset,  our  fathers  brought 
Cincinnatus  from  his  plough,  to  be  dictator.  Caesar,  ne  graviori  bello 
occurreret,  ad  exercitum  proficiscitur,  to  avoid  facing  war  on  a  more  for- 
midable scale,  Caesar  goes  to  the  army. 

900.  (1962.)  The  present  subjunctive  with  ut  or  ne  is  often  used  not 
to  express  the  purpose  of  the  main  action,  but  parenthetically,  to  intro- 
duce the  main  action  :  as,  ut  in  pauca  conferam,  testamento  facto  mulier 
moritur,  to  cut  a  long  story  short,  the  woman  makes  her  will  and  dies. 

901.  (1963.)  The  subjunctive  is  used  in  an  assumption  or  concession 
with  ut  or  ne,  or  if  the  negation  belongs  to  a  single  word,  with  ut  non, 
nemo,  etc. :  as,  sed  ut  haec  concedantur,  reliqua  qui  concedi  possunt  ? 
but  even  supposing  this  be  admitted,  how  can  the  rest  be  admitted?  ne 
sit  summum  malum  dolor,  malum  certe  est,  grant  that  suffering  is  not  the 
chief  est  evil,  an  evil  it  assuredly  is  (7 1 6). 

Result 

COMPLEMF.NTARV    CONSECUTIVE    CLAUSES 

902.  (1965.)  The  subjunctive  with  ut  or  ut  non  is 
used  in  clauses  which  serve  to  complete  the  sense  of 
certain  verbs  and  expressions,  chiefly  of  bringing  to 
pass,  happening,  and  following. 

Such  are:  facio,  efficio  (unless  they  imply  purpose);  fit,  accidit,  con- 
tingit,  evenit;  similarly  mos  est,  consuetudo  est,  reiiquum  est,  relinqui- 
tur,  accedit,  sequitur. 

fecerunt  ut  consimilis  fugae  profectio  videretur,  they  made  their  march 
look  exactly  like  a  stampede,  his  rebus  fiebat,  ut  minus  late  vagarentur, 
so  it  came  to  pass  that  they  did  not  rove  round  much. 

eadem  nocte  accidit,  ut  esset  luna  plena,  it  came  to  pass  on  the  same 
night  that  there  was  a  full  vioon.  relinquebatur  ut  neque  longius  ab  ag- 
mine  legionum  disced!  Caesar  pateretur,  the  consequence  was  that  Caesar 
could  not  allow  any  very  distant  excursion  from  the  main  tine  of  march, 

192 


Conju7ictional  Sentences :  quo       [903-908 

903.  (1966.)  Verbs  of  happening  may  often  be  rendered  best  by 
compacter  expressions:  thus,  his  rebus  fiebat  ut,  co7tsequently ;  fit  ut, 
once  hi  a  while,  sometimes,  often  ;  fieri  potest  ut,  possibly;  accidit  ut,  ac- 
cidejitally,  unfortujiatety. 

904.  (1968.)  A  subjunctive  clause  with  ut  is  often  used  to  define  a 
preceding  idea  indicated  in  a  general  way  by  a  neuter  pronoun  :  as,  post 
eius  mortem  nihilo  minus  Helvetii  id,  quod  constituerant,  facere  conantur, 
ut  e  flnibus  suls  exeant,  after  his  death  the  Helvetians  aitetnpted just  the 
same  to  carry  out  their  resolution  of  moving  out  of  their  abodes. 

Pure  Consecutive  Clauses 

905.  (1970.)  The  subjunctive  is  used  with  ut  or  ut 
non  to  denote  result. 

mons  altissimus  impendebat,  ut  facile  perpauci  prohibere  possent,  an 

exceeding  high  tnountain  hung  over,  so  that  a  very  few  coidd  block  the 
way.  Ariovistus  tantos  sibf  spiritus  sumpserat,  ut  ferendus  non  vide- 
retur,  Ariovistus  had  put  on  such  high  andtnighty  airs  as  to  seem  intoler- 
able, adeo  angusto  mari  confllxit,  ut  eius  multitude  navium  explicari  non 
potuerit,  he  went  into  action  in  such  cra7nped  sea-roo?n,  that  his  armada 

coicld  not  deploy  (806). 

. ^ 

quo 

906.  (1972.)  quo,  whereby,  wherewith,  is  the  instrumental  ablative 
from  the  relative  and  interrogative  stem  qui-.  Combined  with  minus, 
the  less,  not,  quo  gives  quominus. 

WITH  THE  INDICATIVE 

907.  (1973.)  The  indicative  is  used  with  quo  and  a  com- 
parative in  a  comparative  sentence,  with  eo  or  hoc  and  a 
comparative  as  correlative  :  as, 

quo  delictum  mains  est,  eo  poena  est  tardior,  the  greater  the  sin  is, 
the  slower  is  the  punishment.     The  eo  or  hoc  is  sometimes  omitted  :  as,  1 
quo  plures  sumus,  pliiribus  rebus  egebimus,  the  more  numerous  we  are, 
the  more  things  we  shall  need. 

WITH   THE  SUBJUNCTIVE 

908.  (1974.)  The  subjunctive  is  used  with  quo  to  express 
purpose,  chiefly  when  the  clause  of  purpose  contains  a  com- 
parative expression :  as, 

N  193 


909-9 1 3]    Sentences :   The  Subordinate  Sentence 

medic5  puto  aliquid  dandum  esse,  quo  sit  studiosior,  /  think  it  would 
be  well  to  fee  your  medical  man,  to  make  him  more  attentive,  adiuta 
me  quo  id  fiat  facilius,  help  me  that  it  may  be  the  easier  done,  equites 
omnibus  in  locis  piignant,  quo  se  legionariis  militibus  praeferrent,  the 
troopers  fought  on  every  kind  of  ground,  hoping  to  outshine  the  regular 
infantry  thereby. 

quominus 
909.  (1977.)  The  subjunctive  with  quominus  (906)  is  used 
to  complete  the  sense  of  verbs  of  hindering  or  resisting. 

Such  verbs  are  :  impedio,  deterred,  obsto,  resistd,  repugno,  non  re- 
ciisd ;  these  verbs  often  have  a  subjunctive  with  ne  (898). 

non  deterret  sapientem  mors,  quominus  r6I  publicae  suisque  consulat, 
death  does  not  hinder  the  wise  man  from  working  for  country  and  friends. 
quid  obstat,  quominus  sit  beatus  ?  what  is  to  hinder  his  being  happy  ? 
neque  reciisavit  quominus  legis  poenam  subiret,  and  he  did  not  decline  to 
submit  to  the  penalty  of  t/ie  Unv. 


quin 

910.  (1980.)  quin  is  composed  of  qui,  the  ablative  or  locative  of  the 
interrogative  and  relative  stem  qui-,  and  -ne,  not.  It  is  used  in  simple 
sentences  and  as  a  conjunctive  particle. 

911.  (1981.)  For  the  use  of  quin,  why  not,  in  questions  with  the  in- 
dicative, see  706.  Such  questions  have  the  sense  of  an  affirmative  com- 
mand or  exhortation  :  as,  quin  conscendimus  equos,  why  not  mount,  or 
to  horse,  to  horse. 

912.  (1985.)  The  subjunctive  with  quin  is  used  after  facere  non  pos- 
sum and  fieri  non  potest :  as,  facere  non  potui  quin  tibf  sententiam  de- 
clararem,  /  could  not  help  giving  you  my  vie^vs.  fieri  niillo  modo  poterat, 
quin  Cleomeni  parceretur,  //  was  impossible  not  to  spare  Cleomenes. 

913.  (1986.)  The  subjunctive  with  quin  is  used  in  clauses 
which  complete  the  sense  of  verbs  of  restraining,  abstaining, 
delaying,  or  doubting,  when  such  verbs  have  a  negative,  ex- 
pressed or  implied. 

neque  sibf  homines  barbaros  temperatures  existimabat,  quin  in  pro- 
vinciam  exirent,  and  he  thought,  as  they  were  savages,  they  would  not 

194 


Conjunctional  Sentences :  dum      [9 1 4-9 1 8 

restrain  themselves,  but  would  sally  out  into  the  provifice.  nihil  praeter- 
mlsi,  quin  Pompeium  a  Caesaris  coniunctione  avocarem,  /  left  7to  stone 
unturned  to  prevent  Poinpey  from  joining  Caesar,  non  dubitat,  quIn 
neges,  he  doesn't  doubt  that  you'll  refuse,  neque  abest  susplcio  quin  ipse 
sibi  mortem  consciverit,  and  ground  is  not  wanting  for  the  belief  that  he 
made  away  with  himself. 

914.  (1987.)  non  dubito  has  other  constructions :  Accusative  with  the 
infinitive  (in  some  authors:  chiefly  Nepos  and  Livy  and  later  writers). 
Meaning  not  hesitate,  the  infinitive  alone  (955). 

neque  enim  dubitabant  hostem  v^ninrnmy  for  they  firmly  believed  the 
enemy  would  come,    quid  dubitamus  pultare  ?  why  do  we  hesitate  to  knock  ? 

915.  (1988.)  The  subjunctive  with  quin  is  often  used  after 
general  negative  assertions,  or  questions  implying  a  nega- 
tive :  as, 

nemo  fuit  omnlno  militum  quin  vulneraretur,  there  was  absohitely  not 
a  single  soldier  btct  was  wounded.  The  main  sentence  often  has  tam, 
ita,  sic,  or  tantus :  as,  nemo  est  tam  fortis,  quin  r§i  novitate  perturbetur, 
there  is  nobody  so  brave  but  is  demoralized  by  the  strangeness  of  the  situa- 
tion. 

dum,  donee,  quoad,  quamdiu 

916.  (1993.)  As  a  conjunctive  particle,  dum,  while,  means  either  in 
the  time  while,  or  all  the  time  while ;  in  the  latter  sense  quoad  and 
quamdiu  are  also  used.  From  all  the  time  while,  dum  comes  to  mean  as 
long  as,  provided;  and  until ;  in  this  sense  quoad  and  donee  are  also 
used. 

dum,  in  the  time  while 

917.  (1995-)  The  present  indicative  is  regularly  used 
with  dum,  in  the  time  while, 

dum  in  his  locis  Caesar  moratur,  ad  eum  legati  venerunt,  while  Caesar 
tarried  in  these  regions,  some  envoys  came  to  him.  haec  dum  aguntur, 
interest  Cleomenes  iam  ad  Helori  litus  pervenerat,  while  this  was  going 
on,  Cleomenes  meantime  had  already  arrived  at  the  shore  of  Helorum. 

dum,  quoad,  quamdiu  (donee),  all  the  time  while 

918.  (2000  f.)  The  indicative  is  used  with  dum,  quoad,  and 
quamdiu,  all  the  time  while,  as  long  as. 

195 


919-922]    Sentences :   The  Subordinate  Sentence 

aegroto  dum  anima  est,  spes  esse  dicitur,  as  long  as  a  sick  vtan  has 
breath  he  is  said  to  have  hope,  quamdiu  quisquam  erit  qui  te  defendere 
audeat,  vives,  as  long  as  there  shall  be  a  soul  who  will  venture  to  defend 
you,  you  shall  live  on.  avus  noster  quoad  vixit,  restitit  M.  Gratidio,  our 
grandfather  as  long  as  he  lived,  opposed  Gratidius. 

919.  (2002.)  In  poetry  and  in  late  prose  writers,  donee  is  used  in  the 
sense  of  all  the  time  while,  usually  with  the  indicative,  but  sometimes 
with  the  subjunctive  of  repeated  past  action  (794):  as, 

donee  armati  eonfertique  abibant,  peditum  labor  in  persequendo  fuit, 
as  long  as  they  were  moving  off  under  arms  and  in  close  array,  the  task 
of  pursuit  fell  to  the  infantry,  nihil  trepidabant  elephant!,  donee  eon- 
tinentl  velut  ponte  agerentur,  the  elephants  were  not  a  bit  skittish  as  long 
as  they  were  driven  along  what  seemed  a  continuous  bridge. 

dum,  provided,  so 

920.  (2003.)  The  present  and  imperfect  subjunctive  are 
used  in  provisos  introduced  by  dnm, provided,  so. 

dum  is  sometimes  accompanied  by  modo,  only;  or  modo  is  used  with- 
out dum.     The  negative  is  ne. 

oderint  dum  metuant,  let  them  hate,  so  they  fear,  volet,  civis  modo 
haee  sit,  he'll  consent,  only  let  her  be  a  free-born  maid,  magno  me  metu 
liberabis,  dum  modo  inter  me  atque  te  murus  intersit,  yt'w  will  relieve  me 
of  great  fear,  provided  only  there  be  a  wall  interposed  between  you  and 
myself. 

dum,  quoad,  donee,  until 

921.  (2005.)  The  present  and  imperfect  subjunctive  (710) 

are  used  in  clauses  introduced  by  dum,  until,  when  the  clause 

denotes  something  expected  or  proposed  :  as, 

is  dum  veniat  sedens  ibY  opperibere,  v^«  shall  sit  there  waiting  till  he 
comes,  dum  reliquae  naves  eo  eonvenirent,  in  aneoris  exspeetavit,  he 
waited  at  anchor  till  the  rest  of  the  vessels  should  gather  there. 

922.  (2007.)  quoad  or  donee,  until,  introduces  a  clause  in 
the  present  subjunctive  (710)  when  the  main  verb  is  present 
or  future  ;  and  in  the  perfect  indicative  when  the  main  verb 

is  past. 

ea  eontinebis,  quoad  ipse  te  videam,_y^«  will  keep  this  back  till  I  see 

196 


Conditional  Periods  [923-927 

you  myself,  nostrl  reppulerunt  neque  flnem  sequendi  fecerunt,  quoad  equi- 
tes  praecipites  hostes  egerunt,  our  people  routed  them  and  did  not  give 
up  the  pursuit  till  the  cavalry  drove  the  enemy  headlong.  The  present 
indicative  of  vivid  narration  (733)  is  found  in  Vergil  and  Livy:  as, 
socii  consurgere  tonsis,  donee  rostra  tenent  siccum  et  sedere  carinae 
omnes  innocuae,  with  one  accord  the  shipmates  rose  to  oars,  until  the 
beaks  dry  land  attain,  and  keels  all  sat  unscathed. 


quando 

923.  (2010.)  quandd,  originally  a  temporal  particle,  has  the  meaning 
when,  which  readily  passes  over  to  a  causal  xw^^nxw^,  since,  because.  In 
both  meanings  it  introduces  the  indicative. 

924.  (201 1).  quando,  when,  introduces  a  temporal  clause 
with  the  indicative  :  as, 

quando  omnes  creati  sunt,  turn  ad  eos  deus  fatur,  wheii  all  were  created, 
the7t  to  them  spake  the  god. 

925.  (2013.)  quando,  since,  seeing  tJiat,  introduces  a  causal 

clause  with  the  indicative:  as, 

quando  me  in  hunc  locum  deduxit  oratio,  docebo,  seeing  that  my  dis- 
course has  brought  7ne  to  this  poi7it,  I  will  show. 


SI 

Conditional  Periods 

926.  (2016.)  A  subordinate  clause  introduced  by  si,  if,  or 

nisi,  unless,  if  not,  states  a  condition,  and  is  called  a  Protasis ; 

the  main  clause  states  action  occurring  under  that  condition, 

and  is  called  an  Apodosis.     The  conditional  protasis  and  apo- 

dosis  combined  make  a  Conditional  Period  or  Sentence. 

Thus,  si  dies  est,  if  it  is  day,  is  a  conditional  protasis;  combined 
with  an  apodosis,  lucet,  //  is  light,  it  makes  a  conditional  period:  si 
dies  est,  lucet,  if  it  is  day,  it  is  light. 

927.  (2018.)  The  apodosis  is  usually  declarative.  Often,  however,  it 
is  interrogative,  exclamatory,  or  imperative,  or  it  may  take  any  other 
form  which  the  thought  or  the  context  may  require. 

197 


928-933]    Sentences:   The  Subordinate  Sentence 

928.  (2020.)  The  negative  of  si  is  si  non,  if  not,  or  nisi, 
unless,  if  not,  used  especially  of  an  exception  or  after  a  nega- 
tive. A  restriction,  usually  an  ironical  afterthought,  may  be 
introduced  by  nisi  forte  or  nisi  vero  with  the  indicative. 

929.  (2021.)  When  a  second  conditional  period  is  opposed  to  a  first, 
it  is  usually  introduced  by  sin  (or  sin  autem). 

CLASSES  OF  CONDITIONAL  PROTASES 

930.  (2022.)  Conditional  protases  maybe  divided  into  two  classes: 

931.  (2023.)  I.  Indeterminate  protases,  that  is,  such  as 
merely  suppose  an  action,  without  implying  either  its  occur- 
rence or  its  non-occurrence  ;  these  may  take : 

(A.)  Any  tense  of  the  indicative  required  by  the  sense  (933):  or 
(B.)  the  present  subjunctive,  less  frequently  the  perfect  subjunctive,  to 
express  a  condition  in  the  future  (936). 

932.  (2024.)  II.  Protases  of  ACTION  NON-OCCURRENT,  that 

is,  such  as  suppose  action  not  taking  place.     These  take  the 

imperfect  or  pluperfect  subjunctive. 

Thus,  in  the  period  si  dies  est,  liicet,  if  it  is  day,  it  is  light,  the  pro- 
tasis if  it  is  day  is  indeterminate,  neither  implying  that  //  is,  or  is  not 
day.  But  in  si  viveret,  verba  eius  audlretis,  if  he  were  alive,  you  would 
hear  his  evideJtce,  the  protasis  denotes  action  non-occurrent,  //  he  were 
alive,  implying  but  he  is  not. 

I.    INDETERMINATE  PROTASES 
(A.)  INDICATIVE  USE 

933-  (2025.)  The  indicative  in  a  conditional  protasis 
may  state  present,  past,  or  future  time.  The  mood  and 
tense  of  the  apodosis  are  determined  by  the  sense  (927). 

si  sunt  di,  benefici  in  homines  sunt,  //  there  are  gods,  they  are  kind  to 
men.  si  cui  venae  sic  moventur,  is  habet  febrim,  //  a  mans  pulse  beats 
thus  and  so,  he  always  has  fez'er.  si  peccavi,  insciens  feci,  //  I've  done 
wrong,  it  was  in  ignorance,  hi,  si  quid  erat  durius,  concurrebant,  when- 
ever there  was  any  pretty  sharp  work,  these  men  would  always  fait  to. 

198 


Conditional  Periods  [934~937 

stomachabatur  senex,  si  quid  asperius  dixeram,  the  old  gentleman  was 
always  nettled,  if  I  said  anything  harsh,  si  id  audebis  dicere,  causam 
inimici  tui  sublevabis,  if  you  venture  to  say  that,  you  will  promote  the 
cause  of  your  ene?ny.  desilite,  milites,  nisi  vultis  aquilam  hostibus  pro- 
Aex^^jump  overboard,  men,  unless  you  choose  to  abandon  your  eagle  to  the 
eneniy.  quod  si  non  possumus  facere,  moriamur,  if  we  cannot  do  it,  let 
lis  die  (714). 

The  Subjunctive  for  the  Indicative 

934.  (2070.)  The  indefinite  second  person  singular  of  the 
present  or  perfect  subjunctive  is  often  used  in  general  sup- 
positions (794):  as, 

nee  habere  virtutem  satis  est  nisi  iitare,  ajid  to  have  virtue  is  not 
enough,  unless  one  use  it. 

935*  (2070.)  The  imperfect  or  pluperfect  subjunctive  is 
sometimes  used  in  general  past  suppositions  (794):  as, 

si  quis  prehenderetur,  consensii  militura  eripiebatur,  every  time  a  7nan 
was  taken  up,  he  was  rescued  by  the  joint  action  of  t/ie  rank  and  file.  But 
the  indicative  is  the  regular  classical  construction  (933). 

(B.)  SUBJUNCTIVE    USE 

936.  (2072  f.)  The  present  or  perfect  subjunctive 
may  be  used  in  a  conditional  protasis  o-f  future  time. 
The  apodosis  is  usually  in  the  present  subjunctive  (717). 

banc  viam  si  asperam  esse  negem,  mentiar,  if  I  should  say  that  this 
path  is  not  rough,  I  should  not  tell  the  truth,  haec  si  tecum  patria  lo- 
quatur,  ndnne  impetrare  debeat  ?  if  thy  country  should  plead  with  thee 
tlius,  ought  she  not  to  carry  her  point?  si  a  cor5na  relictus  sim,  non 
queam  dicere,  if  I  should  ever  be  abajidoned  by  my  audience,  I  should  not 
be  able  to  speak. 

937.  (2074.)  The  indicative  is  sometimes  used  in  the  apo- 
dosis, especially  in  expressions  of  ability,  duty,  etc.  (693):  as, 

intrare,  si  possim,  castra  hostium  volo,  I  propose  to  e?tter  the  camp  of 
the  enemy,  if  I  be  able,  te  neque  debent  adiuvare,  si  possint,  neque  pos- 
sunt,  si  velint,  they  ought  not  to  help  you,  if  they  could,  and  caifnot,  if 
they  would,  neque  tu  hoc  dicere  audebis,  nee  si  cupias,  licebit,  you  will 
not  dare  to  say  this,  sir,  nor  if  you  wish,  will  you  be  allowed. 

199 


938-940]    Sentences :   The  Subordinate  Sente7ice 

II.     PROTASES   OF   ACTION    NON-OCCURRENT 

938.  (2091.)  The  imperfect  or  pluperfect  subjunc- 
tive is  used  in  both  protasis  and  apodosis  of  a  condi- 
tional period  in  which  the  non-occurrence  of  the  action 
is  implied  (932).  The  imperfect  usually  denotes  pres- 
ent time,  and  the  pluperfect  denotes  past  time. 

is  iam  pridem  est  mortuus.  si  viveret,  verba  eius  audiretis,  that  per- 
son has  lono-  been  dead ;  if  he  were  alive,  you  would  hear  his  evidence. 
invenissemus  iam  diii,  si  viveret,  were  he  alive,  we  should  ha^'e  fotoid  him 
long  ago.  si  venisses  ad  exercitum,  a  tribiinis  visus  esses,  if  you  had 
come  to  the  army,  you  would  have  been  seen  by  the  tribunes,  si  non  mecura 
aetatem  egisset,  hodie  stulta  viveret,  //  she  hadnt  spent  her  life  with 
me,  shed  be  a  fool  to-day. 

939.  (2092.)  The  imperfect  sometimes  denotes  past    time 

(720) :  as, 

num  igitur  eum,  si  turn  esses,  temerarium  civem  putares  ?  would  you 
therefore  have  thought  him,  if  you  had  lived  theft,  a  hotheaded  citizen  ? 
olim  si  advenissem,  raagis  tu  turn  istuc  diceres,  if  I  had  come  before,  you  d 
have  said  so  then  all  the  tnore. 

Indicative  Apodosis 

940.  (2101.)  Theapodosisof  verbs  of  ability,  duty,  etc.  (693), 
including  the  gerundive  with  sum,  usually  takes  the  indica- 
tive, the  imperfect  taking  the  place  of  the  imperfect  or  plu- 
perfect subjunctive,  and  the  perfect  that  of  the  pluperfect 
subjunctive :  as, 

quern  patris  loco,  si  iilla  in  te  pietas  esset,  colere  debebas,  whom  you 
ought  to  honor  as  a  father,  if  you  had  any  such  thing  as  affection  in  you. 
quid  enim  poterat  Heius  respondere,  si  esset  \vs\^XQ\>\xs'i  for  what  answer 
could  Hejus  have  given,  if  he  were  an  2inprincipied  fnan  ?  si  eum  capti- 
vitas  in  urbem  pertraxisset,  Caesarem  ipsum  audire  potuit,  //  captivity 
had  carried  him  to  the  city,  he  could  have  heard  Caesar  himself,  quod  si 
Romae  Cn.  Pompeius  privatus  esset,  tamen  ad  tantum  bellum  is  erat  mit- 
tendus,  now  if  Pompey  were  at  Rome,  in  private  station,  still  he  would  be 
the  man  to  send  to  this  important  war, 

200 


Co7iditional  Pe7'iods  [941-945 

941.  (2093.)  The  periphrastic  future  is  sometimes  used  in  the  apo- 
dosis,  commonly  in  the  indicative  mood:  as,  quibus,  si  Romae  esset, 
facile  contentus  futurus  erat,  with  which,  if  he  were  in  Rome,  he  would 
readily  be  satisfied. 

Variation  of  the  Protasis 

942.  (2109  f.)  Instead  of  a  conditional  protasis  with  si  or  nisi,  equiva- 
lents are  often  used.  Thus,  the  protasis  maybe  coordinated  (J']']),  or  be 
introduced  by  a  relative  pronoun  (831),  cum  (854),  ubi  (885),  ut  or  ne  (901), 
dum,  dum  modo,  modo  (920).  Or  the  protasis  may  be  intimated  by  sine, 
without,  by  a  participle  or  ablative  absolute,  or  otherwise  :  as, 

nemo  umquam  sine  magna  spe  immortalitatis  se  pro  patria  offerret  ad 
mortem,  7tobody  would  ever  expose  himself  to  death  for  his  country  with- 
out a  well-grounded  conviction  of  immortality.  Sulla,  credo,  hunc  pe- 
tentem  repudiasset,  Sulla,  I  suppose,  would  have  turned  my  cliejit  away,  if 
he  petitioned  him.  vivere  ego  Britannico  potiente  rerum  poteram  ?  as  for 
me,  could  I  live,  if  Britannicus  were  ofi  the  throne? 


Concessive  Protases 

943.  (21 16.)  etsi,  tametsi,  and  etiamsi,  when  they  mean 
althougJi,  are  used  to  introduce  concessive  protases  in  the  in- 
dicative :  as, 

Caesar,  etsi  in  his  locis  matiirae  sunt  hiemes,  tamen  in  Britanniam 
proficisci  contendit,  though  the  wiftter  always  sets  in  early  in  these  parts, 
nevertheless  Caesar  made  haste  to  proceed  to  Britain,  etiamsi  multi  me- 
cum  contendent,  tamen  omnis  superabd,  though  I  shall  have  matty  rivals, 
yet  I  will  outdo  them  all. 

Conditional  Comparisons 
quasi,  tamquam  si,  ut  or  velut  si 

944.  (2 II 7  f.)  SI  following  a  word  meaning  than  or  as  is 
used  with  the  subjunctive  in  conditional  comparisons,  si  is 
often  omitted  after  tamquam,  and  sometimes  after  velut. 

945.  (2119.)  The  tense  of  the  subjunctive  is  usually  regu- 
lated by  the  sequence  of  tenses  :  as, 

quid  ego  his  testibus  utor,  quasi  res  dubia  sit  ?  why  do  I  employ  these 

201 


946-951]        Sentences:  Nouns  of  the  l^erb 

'Witnesses,  as  if  it  were  a  case  itwolving  doubt  ?  tamquam  extruderetur, 
ita  cucurrit,  he  rushed  away  as  if  he  had  been  kicked  out.  quod  absentis 
Ariovisti  crudelitatem,  velut  si  cdram  adesset,  liorrerent,  because  they 
tretnbled  at  Ariovistus's  barbarity,  absent  as  he  was,  Just  as  if  he  stood 
before  their  eyes. 

NOUNS   OF   THE   VERB 
The  Infinitive 

946.  (2160.)  The  infinitive  is  in  its  origin  a  verbal  substan- 
tive. 

947.  (2161.)  The  present  infinitive  active  is  an  ancient  dative,  closely 
resembling  in  meaning  and  use  the  English  infinitive  with  to.  h  origi- 
nally marked  action  merely  in  a  general  way,  without  indication  of 
voice  or  tense.  In  virtue  of  this  original  timeless  character,  the  present 
often  represents  action  which  is  really  past  or  future ;  in  such  cases  the 
time  must  be  inferred  from  the  context. 

948.  (2162.)  The  present  infinitive  active  gradually  approached  the 
character  of  a  verb,  and  the  original  substantive  nature  being  forgotten, 
it  was  supplemented  by  a  passive,  and  by  forms  for  completed  and  for 
future  action,  active  and  passive. 

949.  (2163.)  The  infinitive  has  furthermore  two  other  properties  of 
the  verb :  («.)  it  is  modified  by  an  adverb,  not  by  an  adjective;  and  {p.) 
it  is  followed  by  the  construction  of  its  verb. 


Poetical  Use  of  the  Infinitive 
The  Infinitive  ok  Purpose 

950.  (2164.)  The  infinitive  denotes  purpose  with  verbs  of 

motion,  eo,  veni5,  curro,  mitto,  in  poetical  Latin  :  as, 

nee  dulces  occurrent  oscula  natl  praeripere,  nor  shall  thy  children  dear 
come  running  kiss  on  kiss  to  snatch,  non  nos  ferro  Libycos  populare  pe- 
natis  venimus,  we  are  not  come  with  steel  to  harry  Libya  s  hearths. 

951.  (2165.)  In  poetry,  the  infinitive  of  purpose  is  used  with  syno- 
nymes  of  do  also,  and  with  verbs  of  leaving,  taking  away,  taking  up,  etc. 

huic  lorlcam  donat  habere,  on  him  a  corselet  he  bestows  to  wear,  tris- 
titiam  et  metus  tradam  protervis  in  mare  Creticura  portare  ventis,  sad^ 
ness  and  fears  I'll  to  the  wanton  winds  consign,  to  sweep  into  the  ( 'ret/c  sea. 

202 


The  Infinitive  [952-957 


The  Infinitive  with  Adjectives 

952.  (2166.)  The  infinitive  is  sometimes  used  with  adjectives,  chiefly 
by  poets  of  the  Augustan  age,  and  late  prose  writers :  as, 

avidi  committere  pugnam,  hot  to  engage  in  fight,  soli  cantare  periti 
Arcades,  Arcadians  alone  in  minstrelsy  are  skilled,     vitulus  niveus  viderl, 

a  bullock  sjiow-white  to  behold. 


The  Ordinary  Use  of  the  Infinitive 

953.  (2167.)  The  infinitive  is  ordinarily  used  either  as  object  or  as 
subject  of  a  verb. 

The  Infinitive  as  Object 

The    Complementary    Infinitive 

954.  (2168.)  The  present  infinitive  is  often  used  to 
complete  the  meaning  of  certain  kinds  of  verbs  which 
imply  another  action  of  the  same  subject:  as, 

scire  volebat,  he  wanted  to  know.  h5c  facere  debes,  yoit  ought  to  do 
this.  Caesar  Rhenum  transire  decreverat,  Caesar  had  resolved  to  cross 
the  Rhine,  maturat  ab  urbe  proficisci,  he  makes  haste  to  leave  Rome. 
Diviciacus  Caesarem  obsecrare  coepit,  Diviciactcs  began  to  entreat  Caesar. 

955.  (2169.)  The  verbs  or  verbal  expressions  which  are  supplemented 
by  an  infinitive  are  chiefly  such  as  mean  can,  will  or  wish,  ought,  resolve, 
endeavor,  dare,  fear,  hesitate,  hasten,  begin,  co?tti?iue,  cease,  neglect,  am 
wont,  learn,  know  how,  remember,  forget,  seem. 

Some  of  the  commonest  of  these  verbs  are  possum;  void,  nolo,  malo, 
cupio,  stude5 ;  debeo ;  c5git6,  meditor,  statuo,  constituo,  decerno,  par5 ; 
Conor,  nitor,  contendd ;  audeo  ;  vereor ;  dubito,  festlno,  mature,  Instituo, 
coepi,  incipio,  pergo,  desino,  desisto,  neglego,  non  euro  ;  soleo,  adsuesco, 
consuesco ;  disco,  scio,  nescio,  memini,  videor. 

956.  (2170.)  The  infinitive  is  also  used  with  many  verbal  expressions 
equivalent  to  the  above  verbs,  such  as  habeo  in  animo,  consilium  est, 
certum  est,  paratus  sum,  etc.,  etc.,  or  with  paratus  alone,  adsuefactus, 
etc.,  etc. 

957.  (2 171.)  A  predicate  noun  used  with  the  complement- 
ary infinitive,  is  put  in  the  nominative  :  as, 

Aelius  Stoicus  esse  voluit,  Aelius  wanted  to  be  a  Stoic,  esse  quam 
viderl  bonus  malebat,  he  chose  to  be  good  rather  than  seem  good. 

203 


95^-9^2]       Sentences:  Nouns  of  the  Verb 

THE  ACCUSATIVE  WITH  THE  INFINITIVE 

958.  (2172.)  A  very  common  form  of  a  dependent  sentence 

is  that  known  as  the  Accusative  with  the  Infinitive. 

Thus,  of  the  two  coordinate  sentences  scio:  iocaris  tu  nunc,  I  know: 
you  are  jesting  now,  the  second  may  be  put  in  a  dependent  form,  the 
two  sentences  blending  into  one:  scio  iocarl  te  nunc,  /  know  you  to  be 
jesting  now, 

959.  (2173.)  The  subject  of  an  infinitive  is  put  in  the 
accusative. 

Thus,  in  eum  vident,  they  see  him,  eum  is  the  object  of  vident  (499). 
If  sedere  is  added,  eum  vident  sedere,  they  see  him  sit,  or  they  see  that  he 
is  sitting,  eum  is  at  the  same  time  the  object  of  vident  and  the  subject 
of  sedere.  But  the  accusative  by  degrees  becoming  detached  from  the 
main  verb,  and  closely  interlocked  with  the  infinitive,  the  combination 
is  extended  to  cases  where  the  main  verb  is  intransitive  or  passive. 

960.  (2174.)  A  predicate  noun  referring  to  a  subject  accusa- 
tive is  itself  put  in  the  accusative:  as, 

te  esse  arbitror  puerum  probum,  I  think  you  are  a  good  boy.  neminem 
vivum  capi  patiuntur,  they  do  not  allow  anybody  to  be  made  prisoner  alive. 

Verbs  of  Perceiving,  Knowing,  Thinking,  and  Saying 

961.  (2175.)  The  accusative  with  the  infinitive  is 
used  with  active  verbs  or  verbal  expressions  of  perceiv- 
ing, knowing,  thinking,  and  saying:  as, 

patere  tua  consilia  non  sentis  ?  you  don't  feel  that  your  plots  are  all  out? 
huic  f ilium  scis  esse  ?  you  are  aware  that  this  man  has  a  son?  Pompeios 
consedisse  terrae  motu  audlvimus,  we  have  heard  that  Pompei  has  been 
sivallowed  up  by  aft  earthquake,  dicit  montem  ab  hostibus  teneri,  he  says 
the  hill  is  held  by  the  enemy. 

Some  of  the  commonest  of  these  verbs  are:  (</.)  audio,  sentio,  video. 
{b>)  accipio,  intellego,  scio,  nescio.  (r.)  censed,  cogito,  credo,  existimo, 
puto.  (</.)  adfirmo,  died,  doceo,  fateor,  narro,  nego,  nuntio,  ostendo,  pro- 
mitto,  scribo,  spero,  trado.  {e.)  rumor  est,  non  me  fugit,  certus  sum,  non 
nescius  sum,  etc.,  etc. 

962.  (2177.)  Passive  verbs  of  this  class  are  commonly  used  personally 

204 


The  Infinitive  [963-968 

in  the  third  person  of  the  present  system,  with  the  subject,  and   the 
predicate  noun,  if  used,  in  the  nominative  :  as, 

hi  centum  pag5s  habere  dicuntur,  these  people  are  said  to  have  a  hun- 
dred cantons,  pons  prope  effectus  nuntiabatur,  the  bridge  was  reported  to 
be  well-nigh  done.  With  videor,  seem,  the  personal  construction  is  the 
rule  in  all  three  persons,  and  in  the  perfect  system  as  well  as  the  present. 

963.  (2180.)  In  the  perfect  system,  and  also  usually  in  the  gerundive 
construction,  verbs  of  this  class  are  commonly  impersonal :  as, 

traditum  est  Homerum  caecum  fuisse,  the  tradition  is  that  Homer 
was  blind,  ubi  tyrannus  est,  ibf  dicendum  est  nullam  esse  rem  publicam, 
wherever  there  is  an  absolute  ruler,  there  we  must  jnaitttain  there  is  no 
com?nonwealth. 

Verbs  of  Emotion 

964.  (2187.)  The  accusative  with  the  infinitive  is  sometimes 
used  with  verbs  of  joy,  grief,  surprise,  or  wonder :  as, 

venire  tu  me  gaudes,  thou  art  glad  I'm  come,  dolui  pacem  repudiari, 
I  felt  sorry  peace  was  rejected.  These  verbs  often  have  the  construc- 
tion with  quod  (850). 

Verbs  of  Desire 

965.  (2189.)  The  accusative  with  the  infinitive  is  commonly 

used  with  volo  (malo,  nolo),  and  cupio,  when  the  subject  of 

the  infinitive  is  not  the  same  as  that  of  the  verb  :  as, 

Catilinam  perire  volul,  /  wished  Catiline  to  die.  te  tua  frui  virtute 
cupimus,  we  wish  you  to  reap  the  benefit  of  your  high  character. 

966.  (2190.)  Even  when  the  subjects  denote  the  same  person,  the 
accusative  is  sometimes  used  with  the  infinitive :  as, 

morl  me  malim,  Vd  rather  die.  Oftenest  when  the  infinitive  is  esse, 
videri,  putari,  or  dici :  as,  cupid  me  esse  clementem,  cupio  me  non  disso- 
lutum  videri,  /  wish  to  play  the  ma7t  of  mercy,  and  yet  I  do  not  wish  to 
seem  over  lax. 

967.  (2192.)  volo,  malo,  and  cupio  are  often  coordinated  with  the 
subjunctive  of  desire  (780).  volo  and  malo  often  have  the  subjunctive 
with  ut  (894). 

Verbs  of  Bidding  and  Forbidding  and  of  Allowing 

968.  (2198.)  The  accusative  with  the  infinitive  is  used  with 
iubeo  and  veto,  sin5  and  patior:  as, 

205 


969-973]        Sentefices:  Nouns  of  the  Verb 

milites  ex  oppido  exire  iussit,  he  ordered  the  soldiers  to  go  out  of  the 
town,  pontem  iubet  rescind!,  he  orders  the  bridge  torn  up.  castra  valid 
munirl  vetuit,  he  gave  orders  that  the  camp  should  not  be  fortified  with  a 
palisade,     vinum  ad  se  inportari  non  sinunt,  wine  they  will  not  allow  to 

'  be  brought  into  their  country. 

969.  (2199.)  The  person  ordered  or  forbidden  is  often  omitted,  when 
stress  is  laid  on  the  action  merely,  or  when  the  person  is  obvious  from 
the  context :  as,  castra  munire  iubet,  i.  e.  milites,  he  gives  orders  to  con- 
struct a  camp. 

970.  (2201.)  In  the  passive,  iubeo,  veto,  and  sino  are  used  personally, 
the  accusative  of  the  person  ordered  or  forbidden  becoming  nomina- 
tive :  as,  iubentur  scribere  exercitum,  they  are  ordered  to  raise  an  army. 


The  Infinitive  as  Subject 

971.  (2207.)  The  accusative  with  the  infinitive,  or 
the  infinitive  alone,  present  or  perfect,  may  be  used  as 
the  subject  of  a  verb,  in  apposition  with  the  subject,  or 
as  a  predicate  nominative:  as, 

mendacem  memorem  esse  oportere,  that  a  liar  ought  to  have  a  good 
memory,  sequitur  illud,  caedem  senatum  iudicasse  contra  rem  publicam 
esse  factam,  next  comes  this  point,  that  the  senate  adjudged  the  homicide 
an  offence  against  the  state,  exitus  fuit  orationis,  sibi  niillam  cum  his 
amicitiam  esse  posse,  the  end  of  the  speech  was  that  he  could  not  have  any 
friendship  with  these  people. 

972.  (2208  ff.)  The  infinitive  is  used  as  the  subject  with 
impersonal  verbs,  with  est,  putatur,  habetur,  etc.,  and  an  ab- 
stract substantive,  a  genitive,  or  a  neuter  adjective  in  the 
predicate. 

Some  of  the  commonest  impersonal  verbs  are  apparet,  decet,  ex- 
pedit,  licet,  Iubet,  oportet,  praestat,  pudet,  conducit,  constat,  interest, 
iuvat,  placet.  Some  of  the  commonest  abstracts  used  thus  with  est  are 
fama,  fas  and  nefas,  opus,  mos,  tempus.  P'or  genitives,  see  557.  Neuter 
adjectives  are  such  as  aequum,  inlquum,  incredibile,  manifestum,  necesse, 
rectum,  etc.,  etc. 

973.  (2212.)  The  accusative  is  not  expressed  when  it  is  indefinite, 
you,  a  man,  a  person,  anybody,  frequently  also  when  it  is  implied  in 

206 


The  Infinitive  [974-979 

some  other  case  in  the  sentence :  as,  non  tarn  praeclarum  est  scire 
Latlne  quam  turpe  nescire,  it  is  not  so  creditable  to  be  a  Latin  scholar  as 
it  is  disreputable  tiot  to  be. 

974.  (2213,)  A  predicate  noun  referring  to  the  unexpressed  indefinite 
subject  of  the  infinitive  is  put  in  the  accusative:  as,  contentum  suis  re- 
bus esse  maximae  sunt  divitiae,  to  be  satisfied  with  what  one  has  is  the 
greatest  possible  wealth. 

975.  (2214.)  When  the  subject  of  the  infinitive  is  implied  in  a  dative, 
a  predicate  noun  may  also  be  in  the  dative:  as,  mihi  neglegenti  esse  non 
licet,  it  will  not  do  for  me  to  be  careless. 


THE    INFINITIVE   OF    EXCLAMATION 
976.  (2216.)  The  infinitive  alone,  or  the  accusative  with  the 
infinitive,  is  sometimes  used  in  exclamations  of  surprise,  in- 
credulity, disapproval,  or  lamentation  :  as, 

at  te  R5mae  non  fore,  only  to  think  yoii  wont  be  in  Rome!  hoc  posteris 
memoriae  traditum  iri,  to  think  this  will  be  passed  doivn  to  generations 
yet  u7iborn!  Often  with  a  -ne :  as,  tene  hoc,  Acci,  dicere,  tall  prudentia 
praeditum,  what  ?  you  to  say  this,  Accius,  with  your  sou7id  sense  ! 


THE   INFINITIVE   OF   INTIMATION 
977,  (2217.)  This  infinitive  has  already  been  spoken  of;  see  708. 


THE    TENSES   OF    THE    INFINITIVE 

978.  (2218.)  The  present  infinitive  represents  action 
as  going  on,  the  perfect  as  completed,  and  the  future  as 
not  yet  begun,  at  the  time  of  the  action  of  the  verb  to 
which  the  infinitive  is  attached. 

The  Present  Tense 

979.  (2219.)  In  itself,  the  present  infinitive  denotes  action 
merely  as  going  on,  without  any  reference  to  time.  With 
some  verbs,  however,  which  look  to  the  future,  the  present 
relates   to   action  in   the   immediate  future.     With  verbs   of 

207 


980-984]        Sentences :  Nouns  of  the  Verb 

perceiving,  knowing,  thinking,  and  saying,  it  denotes  action 
as  going  on  at  the  time  of  the  verb  :  as, 

facinus  est  vincire  civem  Rdmanum,  //  is  a  crime  to  put  a  Roman  in 
irons,  audire  cupio,  /  am  eager  to  hear,  errare  eos  dicunt,  they  say  those 
people  are  mistaken,  tempus  dixl  esse,  /  said  it  was  time,  dices  tibf 
Siculds  esse  amlcos  ?  will  you  say  the  Sicilians  are  friends  of  yours? 

980.  (2222.)  The  present  infinitive  dependent  on  a  past  tense  of 
debeo,  oportet,  possum,  often  requires  the  English  perfect  infinitive  in 
translation  :  as,  quid  enim  facere  poteramus  ?  for  what  else  could  we  have 
done?     See,  however,  693. 

The  Perfect  Tense 

981.  (2223.)  The  perfect  active  infinitive  sometimes  serves 

as  a  complement  of  debe5,  void,  possum,  etc.  (954):  as, 

unde  ilia  potuit  didicisse  ?  from  what  source  could  he  have  all  that 
information  acquired?  bellum  quod  possumus  ante  hiemem  perfecisse, 
the  war  which  we  can  have  ended  up  before  winter. 

982.  (2226.)  Any  past  tense  of  the  indicative,  when  made 

dependent   on  a  verb   of   perceiving,  knowing,   thinking,    or 

saying,  is  represented  by  the  perfect  infinitive. 

Thus,  in  Theophrastus  scribit  CImonem  hospitalem  fuisse :  ita  enim 
vllicis  imperavisse,  ut  omnia  praeberentur,  Theophrastus  says  in  his  book 
that  Cimon  was  the  soul  of  hospitality :  he  had  directed  his  stewards  to 
furnish  everything  required ;  the  fuisse  represents  erat  or  fuit,  and  the 
imperavisse  may  represent  imperabat,  imperavit,  or  perhaps  imperaverat, 
of  direct  discourse. 

The  Future  Tense 

983.  (2232.)  The  future  infinitive  is  only  used  as  a  representative 
of  the  indicative,  and  not  as  a  substantive. 

984.  (2233.)  For  the  future  infinitive  active  or  passive,  a 
circumlocution  with  fore  or  futurum  esse  with  ut  and  the 
subjunctive  present  or  imperfect  is  often  used.  This  con- 
struction is  necessary  when  the  verb  has  no  future  participle 
or  supine:  as, 

sperd  fore  ut  contingat  id  nobis,  /  hope  we  may  be  so  fortunate,  claic- 
abant  fore  ut  ipsi  se  di  ulclscerentur,  they  cried  out  that  the  gods  would 
avenge  themselves. 

*  208 


The  Gerundive  and  Gerund        [985-989 

985.  (2234.)  fore  with  the  perfect  participle  of  a  passive  or  deponent, 
represents  the  future  perfect  of  direct  discourse:  as,  debellatum  mox 
fore  rebantur,  they  thought  the  war  would  soon  be  oi.>er. 

986.  (2235.)  The  future  infinitive  is  commonly  used  with 

iuro,  minor,  polliceor,  promittd,  and  spero,  especially  when 

the  leading  verb  and  the  infinitive  have  the  same  subject:  as, 

iiiravit  se  nisi  victorem  in  castra  non  reversiirum,  he  swore  he  would 
not  come  back  to  camp  except  as  a  victor,  obsides  daturos  polliciti  sunt, 
they  volunteered  to  give  hostages. 


The   Gerundive   and   Gerund 

987.  (2237  fl.)  The  gerundive  is  a  verbal  adjective  (391).  The  ger- 
und is  a  neuter  verbal  substantive,  used  only  in  the  oblique  cases  of  the 
singular.  Both  gerundives  and  gerunds  express,  in  a  noun  form,  the 
uncompleted  action  of  the  verb.  They  are  modified,  like  verbs,  by  ad- 
verbs, not  by  adjectives. 

The  Gerundive  Construction 

988.  (2240.)  The  gerundive  expresses, in  an  adjective 
form,  the  uncompleted  action  of  a  verb  of  transitive  use 
exerted  on  a  substantive  object,  the  substantive  stand- 
ing in  the  case  required  by  the  context,  and  the  gerun- 
dive agreeing  with  it. 

In  this  construction,  which  is  called  the  gerundive  construction,  the 
substantive  and  gerundive  blend  together  in  sense  like  the  parts  of  a 
compound. 

studium  agrl  colendl,  the  occupation  of  land-tilling,  vir  regendae  r§i 
publicae  scientissimus,  a  man  of  great  experience  in  state-managing. 

The  Gerund 

989.  (2241.)  The  gerund  expresses,  in  a  substantive 
form,  the  uncompleted  action  of  a  verb  which  has  no 
direct  object. 

ars  Vivendi,  the  art  of  living,  se  experiendo  didicisse,  he  had  learned 
by  experience. 

o  209 


990-993]        Sentences:  Nozms  of  the  Verb 

990.  (2242.)  Gerunds  of  verbs  of  transitive  use  are  excep- 
tionally found  with  a  substantive  object  (999,  iCX)i),  and  regu- 
larly with  neuter  pronouns  and  neuter  plural  adjectives  to 
avoid  ambiguity. 

agendl  aliquid  discendlque  causa,  y"<?r  the  sake  of  doing  or  learuiiig 
sojnet/ting.     regendi  cuncta  onus,  ike  burden  0/ governing  the  world. 

Cases  of  Gerunds  and  Gerundives 
Nominative 

991.  (2243.)  The  nominative  of  the  gerundive  con- 
struction, as  the  subject  of  sum,  denotes  action  which 
is  to  be  done. 

The  combination  acquires  the  meaning  of  obligation  or 
propriety,  and  this  meaning  also  passes  over  to  the  accusative 
with  esse.  The  person  who  has  the  action  to  do  is  put  in 
the  dative  of  the  possessor  (544).  Instead  of  the  dative,  the 
ablative  with  ab  is  sometimes  used  (684),  particularly  where 
the  dative  would  be  ambiguous. 

tibi  haec  cura  suscipienda  est,  the  undertaking  of  this  care  exists  for 
you,  i.  e.  you  must  undertake  this  charge.  Caesar  statuit  sibl  Rhenum 
esse  transeundum,  Caesar  made  up  his  mi7id  that  he  must  cross  the  Rhine. 
§1  ego  a  me  referendam  gratiam  non  putem  ?  should  I  not  think  that  I 

ought  to  show  my  gratitude  to  him  ? 

992.  (2246.)  Verbs  of  intransitive  use  take  the  impersonal 
construction  :  as, 

nobis  acriter  pugnandum  est,  we  must  fight  vigorously,  nemo  um- 
quam  sapiens  proditori  credendum  putavit,  no  wise  man  ever  held  that  a 
traitor  was  to  be  trusted. 

993.  (2248.)  The  gerundive  sometimes  acquires,  in  itself, 
the  meaning  of  obligation  or  propriety,  which  it  properly  has 
only  when  combined  with  sum,  and  becomes  a  mere  adjective, 
used  in  any  case. 

huic  tiraendo  hosti  obvius  ful,  /  met  this  dreadful  foe.  Athenas,  multa 
visenda  habentis,  Athens,  which  contains  many  sights  worth  a  visit. 

210 


The  Gerundive  aiid  Gerund      [994-1000 

Accusative 

994.  (2250.)  The  accusative  of  the  gerundive  construction 

is  used  with  euro,  and  with  verbs  of  giving  or  assigning,  such 

as  do,  trado,  relinquo,  permitto. 

pontem  faciendum  curat,  /le  at/ends  to  a  bridge  s  being  made,  i.  e.  has 
it  made,  agros  plebl  colendos  dedit,  he  gave  lands  to  the  common  people 
to  till.  Antigonus  Eumenem  propinquis  sepeliendum  tradidit,  AntigoJius 
delivered  Etimeiies  to  his  kinsfolk  to  be  buried. 

995.  (2252.)  The  accusative  of  the  gerundive  construction 
or  gerund  is  used  with  a  preposition,  usually  ad. 

ad  eas  res  conficiendas  Orgetorix  deligitur,  Orgetorix  is  chosen  to  do 
this,  palus  R6man5s  ad  insequendum  tardabat,  a  morass  hi?idered  the 
Romans  from  pursuit,  utebatur  eo  cibo  qui  esset  facillimus  ad  conco- 
quendum,  he  made  use  of  the  sort  of  food  which  was  easiest  to  digest. 

Dative 

996.  (2254.)  The  dative  of  the  gerundive  construction  is  used  rarely 
with  a  few  verbs  and  adjectives,  and  in  some  set  phrases:  as, 

hlbernls  oppugnandis  hunc  esse  dictum  diem,  that  this  was  the  day  set 
for  attacking  the  winter  qua7'ters.  Demosthenes  curator  murls  refi- 
ciendis  fuit,  Demosthenes  was  cominissioner  for  repairing  the  walls. 

997.  (2257.)  The  dative  of  the  gerund  is  confined  in  the  best  prose 
to  a  few  special  phrases:  as,  quod  scribendo  adfuisti,  because  you  were 
present  at  the  writing. 

Genitive 

998.  (2258.)  The  genitive  of  the  gerundive  construction  or 
gerund  is  used  with  substantives  or  adjectives. 

summa  difficultas  navigandi,  the  greatest  difficulty  in  saili7tg.  proelil 
committendi  signum  dedit,  he  gave  the  signal  for  begin7iing  the  battle. 
studiosus  audiendl,  an  eager  listener.  Particularly  with  causa  (570),  to 
denote  purpose  :  as,  vltandae  suspicionis  causa,  to  avoid  suspicion. 

999.  (2259.)  In  the  genitive,  a  transitive  gerund  with  an  object  in 
the  accusative  sometimes  occurs :  as,  cupidus  te  audiendl,  eager  to  hear 
you.     But  commonly  the  gerundive  construction  is  used. 

1000.  (2260.)  nostri,   vestrl,  and  sui,    being   singular  in    form   have 

211 


I  oo  I -1 007]   Sentences:  Nouns  of  the  Verb 

often  a  singular  gerundive  :  as,  venisse  tempus  ulciscendi  sui,  that  the 
time  was  come  for  them  to  revenge  themselves. 

Ablative 

1001.  (2265.)  In  the  ablative  a  transitive  gerund  with  a  substantive 
object  is  not  uncommon  :  as,  large  partiendo  praedam,  by  a  lavish  dis- 
tribution of  the  spoil. 

1002.  (2266.)  The  ablative  of  the  gerundive  construction  or 

gerund  denotes  means,  less  often  cause. 

opprimi  sustentando  ac  prolatando  nullo  pacto  potest,  //  cannot  be 
crushed  by  patience  and  procrastination,  flendo  turgidull  rubent  ocelli, 
with  weeping  red  and  swollen  are  her  eyne. 

1003.  (2267.)  The  ablative  of  the  gerundive  construction  or 

gerund  is  also  accompanied  by  a  preposition,  ab,  de,  in,  or  ex. 

nullum  tempus  illl  umquam  vacabat  aut  a  scribendo  aut  a  cogitando, 
he  never  had  any  time  free  from  writing  or  from  thinking,  nihil  de 
causa  discenda  praecipiunt,  they  give  no  instruction  about  studying  up  a 


The   Supine 

1004.  (2269.)  The  supine  is  a  verbal  substantive.  The  form  in  -urn 
is  an  accusative.  The  form  in  -u  is  used  sometimes  as  a  dative,  some- 
times as  an  ablative. 

The  Supine  in  -um 

1005.  (2270.)  The  supine  in  -um  denotes  purpose  with  verbs 
of  motion  :  as, 

abiit  piscatum,  hes  gone  a  fishing,  legione  una  frumentatum  missa, 
one  legion  being  sent  a  foraging.  In  classical  Latin,  purpose  is  more 
commonly  expressed  by  the  subjunctive  with  ut  or  a  relative  pronoun, 
or  by  a  gerundive  or  gerund  with  ad  or  causa. 

1006.  (2272.)  The  supine  in  -um  may  be  followed  by  the  same  con- 
struction as  its  verb:  as,  legatos  ad  Caesarem  mittunt  rogatum  auxilium, 
they  send  envoys  to  Caesar  to  beg  aid.  non  ego  Grais  servitum  mathbus 
ibo,  not  I  shall  go  to  be  the  serf  of  Grecian  dames. 

The  Supine  in  -u 

1007.  (2274.)  The  supine  in  -u  is  used  with  fas,  nefas,  and 

212 


The  Participle  [  1 008- 1  o  i  3 

adjectives,  chiefly  of  such   meaning  as  easy,  good,  pleasant, 
strange,  or  their  opposites:  as, 

SI  hoc  fas  est  dictu,  if  heaven  allows  its  to  say  so.  quaerunt  quod  op- 
timum factu  sit,  they  ask  what  the  best  thing  is  to  do. 

1008.  (2275.)  The  supine  in  -u  is  never  used  with  an  object  in  the 
accusative. 

The  Participle 

1009.  (2278.)  The  participle  is  a  verbal  adjective.  Like  the  adjec- 
tive, it  is  inflected  to  aji^ree  with  its  substantive.  Like  the  verb,  it  may 
be  modified  by  an  adverb,  it  is  active  or  passive,  and  it  expresses  action 
as  continuing,  completed,  or  future.  It  may  also  be  followed  by  the 
same  case  as  its  verb. 

Time  of  the  Participle 

loio.  (2279.)  The  time  to  which  the  participle  refers  is  in- 
dicated by  the  verb  of  the  sentence  :  as, 

aer  effluens  hue  et  illuc  ventos  efiicit,  the  air  by  streaming  to  a?id 
fro  produces  winds,  manus  tendentes  vitam  orabant,  with  hands  out- 
stretched they  begged  their  lives,  consecutus  id  quod  animo  proposuerat, 
receptui  cam  iussit,  having  accomplished  what  he  had  designed,  he  gave 
orders  to  sound  the  retreat. 

loii.  (2280.)  The  perfect  participle  of  some  deponents  is  sometimes 
used  with  past  tenses  or  their  equivalents  to  denote  incomplete  con- 
temporaneous action :  as, 

gavisus  illos  retineri  iussit,  with  pleasure  he  gave  orders  for  their 
detention,  persuadent  Rauracis  uti  eodem  usi  consilio  proficiscantur, 
they  coaxed  the  Ranraci  to  adopt  the  same  plan  and  go. 

The  Attributive  Participle 

1012.  (2282.)   The   present   or   perfect    participle   is   often 

used  as  an  adjective  to  express  a  permanent  condition  :  as, 

acrem  oratorem,  incensum  et  agentem  et  canorum  fori  strepitus  de- 
siderat,  the  noisy  forum  requires  aft  impetuous  speaker,  inspired  and 
dramatic  and  sonorous. 

1013.  (2285.)  A  perfect  participle  in  agreement  with  a  substantive 
often  contains  the  leading  idea,  and  may  be  translated  like  an  abstract 
substantive  with  a  genitive  dependent.  The  nominative  is  rarely  thus 
used. 

213 


I  o  1 4- 1  o  I  y]  Sentences :  Nouns  of  the  Verb 

iniuriae  retentorum  equitum  Romandrum,  the  outrages  of  Roman 
knights  detained,  i.  e.  in  the  detention  of  Roman  knights,  post  natos  ho- 
mines, since  the  creation  of  man.  ante  civitatem  datam,  before  the  gift 
of  the  citizejiship. 

The  Substantive  Participle 

1014.  (2287.)  Participles   sometimes   become  substantives, 

especially  the  perfect  participle :  as, 

vivit  gnata,  your  daughter  s  alive,  gvocatis  equos  sumit,  he  took  away 
the  veterans  horses  Adverbs,  not  adjectives,  are  commonly  used  to 
qualify  perfect  participles  used  as  substantives. 

The  Appositive  Participle 

1015.  (2293.)  The  appositive  participle  is  a  loose  substitute  for  a  sub- 
ordinate sentence  introduced  by  a  relative  or  by  a  conjunctive  particle. 

1016.  (2294.)  The  appositive  participle  may  represent  a  relative  sen- 
tence: as,  novl  ego  Epicureos  omnia  sigilla  venerantes,  I  kno7V  Epicu- 
reans who  bow  the  kfiee  to  all  sorts  of  graven  images. 

1017.  (2295.)  The  appositive  participle,  representing  other 
sentences,  may  express  various  relations:  as,  (<?.)  time,  (^.) 
cause  or  means,  (r.)  purpose,  (</.)  concession,  (^.)  condition,  (/.) 
manner. 

For  the  ablative  absolute  in  such  relations,  see  640. 

{a.)  Time:  occisus  est  a  cena  rediens,  he  was  murdered  on  his  way 
home  from  a  ditiner-party. 

{b.)  Cause  or  means:  motum  exspectans  dilectum  habere  instituit, 
since  he  anticipated  a  rising,  he  determined  on  recruiting  troops,  mo- 
veor  tali  amico  orb§,tus,  /  am  certainly  affected  at  being  bereaved  of  such 
a  friend. 

{c.)  Purpose:  in  poetry  and  late  prose,  the  future  participle:  laeto 
complerant  litora  coetii  visuri  Aeneadas,  in  happy  company  they'd  filled 
the  strand  to  see  Aeneas'  mc7t. 

(d.)  Concession :  ibf  vehementissime  perturbatus  Lentulus  tamen  ct 
slgnum  et  manum  suam  cognovit,  thereupon  Lentulus,  though  thrown  into 
the  most  extreme  confusion,  did  yet  recognize  his  own  hand  and  seal. 

(e.)  Condition:  quid  igitur  mihf  ferarum  laniatus  oberit  nihil  sentient!? 
what  hurt  will  the  clawing  of  wild  beasts  do  me  if  I  have  no  feeling? 

(/.)  Manner:  dictator  et  magister  equitum  triumphantes  in  urbcm 

214 


The  Participle  [1018,  1019 

rediere,  the  dictator  and  his  master  of  the  horse  returned  to  the  city  in 
triumph. 

The  Predicative  Participle 

1018.  (2297.)  habeo  is  sometimes  used  with  certain  perfect 
participles  to  express  an  action  continuing  in  its  conse- 
quences :  as, 

in  ea  provincia  pecunias  magnas  collocatas  habent,  they  have  invested 
large  funds  in  that  province,  clausum  lacu  ac  montibus  et  circumfusuni 
suis  copiis  habuit  hostem,  his  efiemy  he  had  shut  in  by  lake  and  mountains 
and  surroujided  by  his  troops. 

1019.  (2298.)  The  present  participle   is  used   predicatively 

with  verbs  signifying  represent,  and  with  verbs  denoting  the 

exercise  of  the  senses  or  mind:  as, 

facit  Socratem  disputantem,  he  represe?tts  Socrates  discussing,  non 
ilium  miserum,  ignarum  casus  sui,  redeuntem  a  cena  videtis  ?  do  you  not 
see  the  poor  7nan,  little  dreamitig  of  his  fate,  returning  from  the  dinner? 
non  audivit  draconem  loquentem,  he  did  not  hear  the  serpent  speaking. 
Verbs  denoting  the  exercise  of  the  senses  or  mind  take  the  accusative 
with  the  infinitive  to  denote  the  fact  or  action ;  see  961. 


Appendix 


Indirect  Discourse 
(Oratio  Obliqua) 

1020.  (2309.)  The  speech  or  thought  of  another,  when 
made  dependent  on  a  verb  of  saying  or  thinking,  is  called 
Indirect  Discotirse  (789). 

1021.  (2310.)  The  verb  of  thinking  or  saying  is  often  not 
distinctly  expressed,  but  only  implied  in  the  context  (791). 

1022.  (231 1.)  The  principles  which  govern  the  change  of  direct  dis- 
course into  indirect  discourse  have  been  already  set  forth  in  the  fore- 
going pages;  but,  for  the  convenience  of  the  learner,  they  are  here  put 
together. 

MOOD 

(A.)    Main  Sentences 

1023.  (2312.)  Declarative  sentences  of  direct  dis- 
course are  put  in  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive,  and 
interrogative  and  imperative  sentences  of  direct  dis- 
course are  put  in  the  subjunctive,  in  indirect  discourse: 
as, 

dicit  montem  ab  hostibus  teneri,  he  says  that  the  hill  is  held  by  the 
enemy  (960.  quid  vellet  ?  cur  in  suas  possessiones  veniret  ?  ivhat  did  he 
mean?  why  this  movement  into  his  property'/'  (810).  Cicero  respondit : 
si  ab  armls  discedere  velint,  se  adiutdre  utantur  legatosque  ad  Caesarem 
mittant,  Cicero  replied :  if  they  wished  to  lay  down  their  arms,  let  them 
take  his  advice  and  send  envoys  to  Caesar  (713). 

1024.  (2313.)    Rhetorical  questions  (that  is,  declarations  made  for 

216 


Indirect  Discourse  [1025-1029 

effect  in  the  form  of  questions)  in  the  first  or  third  person  in  the  direct 
discourse  are  put  in  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive  in  indirect  dis- 
course: as, 

si  veteris  contumeliae  oblivlsci  vellet,  num  etiam  recentium  iniiiria- 
rum  memoriam  deponere  posse  ?  if  he  were  inclined  to  disregard  the  old 
affro7it,  could  he  also  forget  their  fresh  insults? 

1025.  (2314.)  Questions  which  are  in  the  subjunctive  in  direct  dis- 
course retain  the  subjunctive  in  indirect  discourse  :  as,  quod  vero  ad 
amicitiam  populi  Romanl  attulissent,  id  iis  eripi  quis  pati  posset  ?  who 
could  allow  them  to  be  stripped  of  what  they  had  possessed  when  they  be- 
came the  friends  of  the  Roinan  7tatio7i?  (723). 

(B.)    Subordinate  Sentences 

1026.  (2315.)  The  verb  of  a  subordinate  sentence, 
introduced  by  a  relative  word  or  a  conjunctive  particle, 
stands  in  the  subjunctive  in  indirect  discourse  (788). 

ad  haec  Ariovistus  respondit :  ius  esse  belli,  ut  qui  vicissent  iis  quos 
vicissent,  quemadmodum  vellent  imperarent,  to  this  Ariovistus  answered: 
that  it  was  the  right  of  war  for  the  conquerors  to  dictate  to  the  conquered 
such  terms  as  they  pleased. 

\Q2,*j.  (2316.)  But  relative  sentences  equivalent  to  main  sentences 
(843)  may  be  put  in  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive:  as,  iinum  medium 
diem  fuisse,  quem  totum  Galbam  in  consideranda  causa  comp5nendaque 
posuisse,  that  a  single  day  intervetied  and  that  this  whole  day  Galba  em- 
ployed in  studying  up  and  arranging  the  case. 

1028.  (2318.)  Relative  sentences  which  are  not  a  part  of  the  quota- 
tion, but  an  addition  of  the  writer's,  or  which  are  circumlocutions 
equivalent  to  a  substantive,  are  often  marked  by  the  indicative  :  as, 

nuntiatum  est  Ariovistum  ad  occupandum  Vesontionem,  quod  est  op- 
pidum  maximum  Sequanorum,  contendere,  //  was  reported  that  Ariovistus 
was  pressing  on  to  seize  Vesontio,  which  is  the  most  considerable  town  of 
the  SequaJts. 

1029.  (2319.)  Sentences  containing  the  thought  of  another, 
introduced  by  a  relative  pronoun  or  by  causal,  temporal,  or 
other  conjunctive  particles,  often  take  the  subjunctive,  though 
not  appended  to  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive  (791)  :  as, 

217 


I  o  30- 1032]  Appendix 

numquis,  quod  bonus  vir  esset,  gratias  dis  egit  yxmt\\xdLm'i  did  anybody 
ever  thank  the  gods  "because  he  was  a  good  man'' ?  (851).  For  other 
examples,  see  791. 

TENSE 
(A.)    Of  the  Infinitive 

1030.  (2321.)  The  tenses  of  the  infinitive  follow  their  usual 
law  (978),  representing  the  action  as  present,  past,  or  future, 
from  the  speaker's  point  of  view. 

nuntiatum  est  Ariovistum  ad  occupandum  Vesontidnem  contendere 
triduique  viam  a  suis  f  inibus  profecisse,  //  was  reported  that  Ariovistus 
was  pressing  on  (979)  to  seize  Vesontio,  and  that  he  had  done  a  three  days' 
journey  from  his  own  borders  (982).  legati  haec  se  ad  suos  relaturos 
dixerunt,  the  envoys  said  they  would  report  this  to  their  countrymen  (983). 
For  other  examples,  see  961-970;  for  the  infinitive  equivalent  of  the 
indicative  imperfect  and  pluperfect,  see  982. 

(B.)    Of  the  Subjunctive 

1031.  (2322.)  The  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  follow  the  law 
of  the  sequence  of  tenses  ;  see  802. 

The  tenses  are  usually  imperfect  or  pluperfect,  as  the  verb 
introducing  a  quotation  is  usually  past. 

Socrates  dicere  solebat,  omnes  in  eo  quod  scirent,  satis  esse  eloquen- 
tes,  Socrates  used  to  maintain  that  all  men  were  eloquent  enough  in  a 
matter  which  they  understood  (808).  cognovit  Suebos  postea  quam 
pontem  fieri  comperissent,  nuntios  in  omnes  partes  dimlsisse,  he  ascer- 
taitied  that  after  the  Suebans  had  learned  of  the  building  of  the  bridge, 
they  had  sent  out  messengers  in  every  direction.  For  other  examples, 
see  803-809. 

1032.  (2323.)  But  the  present  and  perfect  subjunctive  are  often  used, 
especially  when  the  main  verb  is  present,  or  for  vividness  even  when 
the  main  verb  is  secondary. 

Alexandrum  Philippus  accusat  quod  largitione  benevolentiam  Mace- 
donum  consectetur,  Philip  accuses  Alexander  of  courting  the  favor  of 
the  Macedonians  by  the  use  of  money  (803,  851).  Ariovistus  respondit: 
stlpendium  capere  iure  belli  quod  victorgs  victis  imponere  consuerint, 
Ariovistus  ans7vered  that  it  was  by  the  laws  of  war  that  he  took  the  trib- 
ute which  victors  were  wont  to  lay  upon  the  vanquished  (806). 

218 


Indirect  Discourse  \}^Z'h~^^^l 

Pronoun 

1033.  (2325.)  ego  and  nos,  of  direct  discourse,  are  repre- 
sented by  se  in  indirect  discourse,  and  meus  and  noster  by 
suus.  tu  and  vos,  of  direct  discourse,  are  represented  in  indi- 
rect discourse  by  ille,  or,  when  less  emphatic,  by  is. 

translsse  Rhenum  sese  non  sua  sponte,  that  he  had  crossed  the  Rhine 
not  of  his  own  accord,  was  the  assertion  of  Ariovistus.  qui  nisi  decedat, 
sese  ilium  non  pro  amico  sed  hoste  habiturum.  quod  si  eum  interfecerit, 
multis  sese  principibus  populi  Romani  gratum  esse  facturum,  that  unless 
he  withdrew,  he  should  consider  him  not  a  friend  bnt  a  foe.  Why,  if  he 
killed  him,  he  should  do  a  favor  to  numerous  leading  nicJi  in  the  Roman 
station.     Here  Ariovistus  is  reported  as  speaking  to  Caesar. 

CONDITIONAL  PERIODS  IN  INDIRECT  DISCOURSE 
(A.)  Protasis 

1034.  (2326.)  The  protasis  of  every  kind  (931,  932)  has  the 
verb  in  the  subjunctive  in  indirect  discourse  (1026). 

1035.  (2327.)  The  tense  of  the  protasis  is  generally  imper- 
fect or  pluperfect  (103 1) :  as, 

Ariovistus  respondit :  si  ipse  populo  Romano  non  praescriberet,  ndn 
oportere  sese  a  populo  Romano  impediri,  Ariovistus  answered :  if  he  did 
not  dictate  to  the  Roman  nation,  no  more  ought  the  Rojnan  natioji  to  in- 
terfere with  him.  quae  si  fecisset,  Pompeium  in  Hispanias  iturum,  if  he 
did  that,  Pompey  would  go  to  the  Spains. 

1036.  (2328.)  But  indeterminate  protases  (931)  are  sometimes  put  in 
the  present  or  perfect  subjunctive  in  indirect  discourse,  even  with  a 
main  secondary  tense:  as, 

Ariovistus  respondit :  si  iterum  experiri  velint,  se  paratum  esse  decer- 
tare,  Ariovistus  answered  that  if  the  Romans  wanted  to  'try  again,  he 
was  ready  to  fight  it  out. 

1037.  (2329.)  Protases  of  action  non-occurrent  (932)  remain  in 

the  imperfect  or  pluperfect,  even  with  a  main  primary  tense. 

quaeret  ab  acciisatoribus  quid  facturi  essent,  si  in  eo  loco  fuissent,  he 
will  ask  the  accusers  what  they  would  have  done  if  they  had  bee?t  iti  that 
predicame?it. 

219 


1 038- 1 040]  Appendix 

(B.)   Apodosis 

1038.  (2330.)  In  indeterminate  conditional  periods  (931), 
the  apodosis  simply  follows  the  general  rule  (1023,  1030):  as, 

lovem  sic  aiunt  philosophi,  si  Gracce  loquatur,  loqui,  the  philosophers 
say  that  this  is  Jove's  style  of  speaking,  if  Jove  speaks  Greek  (933).  sin 
bello  persequi  perseveraret,  reminisceretur  pristinae  virtutis  Helvetiorum, 
if  he  persisted  in  following  them  up  with  war,  let  him  call  to  mind  the 
old  time  valor  of  the  Helvetians  {g2)?>)'  futurum  esse,  nisi  provisum  esset, 
ut  Roma  caperetur,  that  unless  precaution  was  taken,  Rome  would  be  capt- 
ured (984,  933). 

1039.  (2331.)  In  conditional  periods  of  action  non-occurrent 
(932),  the  future  participle  with  fuisse  is  used  in  apodoses  of 
the  active  voice  :  as, 

an  Cn.  Pompeium  censes  maximarum  rerum  gloria  laetaturum  fuisse, 
SI  sciret  se  in  solitudine  Aegyptiorum  trucidatum  iri,  do  you  suppose  that 
Pompey  would  have  taken  any  pleasure  i?i  the  fame  which  his  peerless 
exploits  brought  him  if  he  had  known  that  he  was  going  to  be  butchered 
in  the  wilds  of  Egypt  f 

In  one  instance,  found  in  Caesar,  the  future  participle  with  esse 
occurs,  representing  the  imperfect  subjunctive  of  present  time  (938)  : 
Caesarem  arbitrari  profectum  in  Italiam ;  neque  aliter  Carnutes  inter- 
ficiundi  Tasgetii  consilium  fuisse  capturos,  neque  Eburones,  si  ille  ades- 
set,  ad  castra  ventures  esse,  that  he  thought  Caesar  was  gone  into  Italy  : 
otherwise,  the  Carnutes  would  not  have  formed  their  design  of  killing 
Tasgetius,  and  the  Eburones,  if  he  were  at  hand,  would  not  be  assaulting 
the  camp.  Here  the  context  shows  that  venturos  esse  represents  the 
imperfect  subjunctive  of  the  direct  discourse.  But  ordinarily  it  might 
seem  to  represent  the  future  indicative.  Hence,  to  avoid  ambiguity, 
the  Romans  generally  did  not  try  to  express  present  time  in  apodoses 
of  this  class- in  indirect  discourse. 

1040.  (2334.)  futurum  fuisse  ut  with  the  imperfect  subjunc- 
tive is  used  in  apodoses  of  the  passive  voice :  as, 

Theophrastus  accusasse  naturam  dicitur  quod  hominibus  tarn  exi- 
guam  vitam  dedisset :  quorum  si  aetas  potuisset  esse  longinquior,  fu- 
turum fuisse  ut  omni  doctrina  hominum  vita  erudiretur,  //  is  said  that 
Theophrastus  took  nature  to  task  "for  giving  man  such  a  short  life  ;  if 

220 


Pronouns  [  1 04 1  - 1 04  5 

the  period  could  have  been  longer,  mans  life  would  have  been  informed 
with  knowledge  of  every  sort!' 


Pronouns 

The  Personal  Pronoun 

1041.  (2335.)  For  the  use  of  the  nominatives  ego  tu,  nos 

vos,  see  456.    The  genitive  plurals  nostrum  and  vestrum  are 

used  as  partitive,  nostri  and  vestri  as  objective  genitives:  as, 

nem5  nostrum,  fwt  one  of  ics  (560).  memoria  nostri  XvLSL^your  remem- 
brance of  me  (571). 

The  Reflexive  se  and  suus 

1042.  (2336.)  The  reflexive  regularly  refers  to  the 
subject  of  the  verb  :  as, 

fugae  sese  mandabant,  they  betook  themselves  to  fight.  Caesar  copias 
suas  divlsit,  Caesar  divided  his  forces.  For  se  ipse,  see  1061  ;  for  se  or 
suus  quisque,  1069. 

1043.  (2337.)  The  reflexive  suus  sometimes  refers  to  a  word  not  the 
subject,  when  that  word  is  specially  emphasized  or  easily  made  out 
from  the  context :  as, 

Alexandrum  uxor  sua  occldit,  Alexander  was  murdered  by  his  own 
wife,  desinant  insidiari  domi  suae  consuli,  let  them  cease  to  waylay  the 
consul  in  his  own  house  and  home. 

1044.  (2338.)  In   the   construction   of  the   accusative  with 

the  infinitive,  the  reflexive  is  regularly  used  when  the  subject 

of  the  infinitive  refers  to  the  subject  of  the  verb :  as, 

Varus  imperium  se  habere  dixit.  Varus  said  that  he  had  authority. 
id  sese  effecturos  sperabant,  they  hoped  to  accomplish  it. 

1045.  (2340.)  When  the  subject  of  the  infinitive  is  different  from 
that  of  the  verb,  the  reflexive  sometimes  refers  to  the  subject  of  the 
verb,  sometimes  to  that  of  the  infinitive:  as, 

Ariovistus  respondit  omnes  Galliae  civitates  ad  se  oppugnandum  ve- 
nisse,  Ariovistus  answered  that  all  the  states  of  Gaul  had  come  to  attack 
him,  \.  e.  Ariovistus.      neminem  secum  sine  sua  pernicie   contendisse, 

22 1 


1 046- 1 05  o]  Appendix 

that  710  man  had  co7ttended  with  him  without  his  own  t47tdoi)ig ;  secum 
refers  to  Ariovistus,  the  subject  of  the  main  verb  respondit,  sua  to  ne- 
minem. 

1046.  (2341.)  In  subordinate  subjunctive  clauses  of  purpose, 
indirect  discourse,  or  indirect  question,  the  reflexive  refers  to 
the  subject  of  the  main  sentence,  and  is  called  the  Indirect 
Reflexive:  as, 

huic  mandat,  ut  ad  se  quam  primum  revertatur,  he  instructs  him  to 
come  back  to  himself  as  soofi  as  possible,  excruciabit  me  erus,  quia  sibi 
non  dixerim,  7ny  7naster'll  torture  7iie  "  because  I  have  not  told  hi7n." 

Equivalents  for  a  Reciprocal  Pronoun 

1047.  (2344,)  The  place  of  a  reciprocal  pronoun,  each  otJier, 

is  supplied  by  inter  nos,  inter  v5s,  inter  se,  or  by  alter  or 

alius  followed  by  another  case  of  the  same  word :  as, 

inter  nos  natiira  coniuncti  sumus,  we  are  united  with  each  other  by 
7iature.  Cicerones  pueri  amant  inter  se,  the  Cicero  boys  are  fond  of  each 
other,     cum  alius  alii  subsidium  ferret,  whe7i  they  were  helpi7ig  each  other. 

The  Possessive  Pronoun 

1048.  (2346.)  The  possessive  of  the  personal  and  reflexive  pronoun 
is  regularly  omitted,  unless  it  is  required  for  emphasis  or  contrast. 

The  Demonstrative  Pronoun 
hie 

1049.  (2247.)  hic  points  out  what  is  near  the  speaker  in 
place,  time,  or  thought :  as, 

non  me  existimavi  in  hoc  sermone  usque  ad  banc  aetatem  esse  ven- 
turum,  /  did  7tot  thi7ik  that  in  this  discourse  I  should  get  down  to  the 
present  ge7ieratio7t.  reliquum  omne  tempus  hiiius  anni,  all  the  rest  of  this 
year. 

1050.  (2351.)  When  hic  relates  to  the  words'of  a  sentence,  it  points 
out  what  has  preceded  or  is  to  follow,  or  emphasizes  a  word  referred  to 
by  a  preceding  relative. 


Pronouns  [105 1 -105  5 


haec  habui  de  senectute  quae  dicerem,  this  was  what  I  had  to  say  on 
Old  Age.  fecit  pacem  his  condicionibus,  he  made  peace  o?i  the  following 
terms. 

105 1.  (2352.)  hic  and  ille  are  often  opposed,  particularly  in  contrasts 
of  classes :  as,  laudatur  ab  his,  culpatur  ab  illis,  one  side  praises  him,  the 
other  condemns. 

1052.  (2354.)  When  hic  and  ille  refer  to  two  different  persons  or 
things  named  in  the  sentence,  hic  commonly  refers  to  the  nearer  word, 
ille  to  the  remoter  word  :  as, 

Caesar  beneficiis  ac  munificentia  magnus  habgbatur,  integritate  vitae 
Cato.  Ille  mansuetiidine  et  misericordia  clarus  factus,  huic  severitas  dig- 
nitatem addiderat,  Caesar  was  esteemed  great  for  his  liberality  and  ge?t- 
erosity,  Cato  for  his  unsullied  life.  The  former  became  fainous  through 
his  huma?iity  a7id  niercy,  the  latter  s  digjiity  was  heightened  by  his  aus- 
terity. 

iste 

1053.  (2356.)  iste  points  out  something  near  to,  belonging 

to,  or  imputed  to  the  person  addressed  :   as, 

cum  ista  sis  auctoritate,  non  debes  adripere  maledictum  ex  trivio, 
carrying  the  infiuejice  that  you  do,  you  ought  not  to  take  to  street-corfter 
abuse,  in  istis  faucibus,  istis  lateribus,  ista  gladiatorial  totius  corporis 
firmitate,  you  with  that  gullet  of  yours,  those  swollen  flan/cs,  that  prize- 
fighter s  bulky  make-up. 

ille 

1054.  (2358.)  ille  points  to  what  is  remote  in  place,  time,  or 

thought :  as, 

populus  Romanus  nihil  aeque  atque  illam  veterem  iudiciorum  vim 
gravitatemque  requirit,  the  Romatt  people  miss  nothing  so  much  as  the 
ancient  vigor  and  firmness  attaching  to  public  trials,  his  autem  de  rebus 
sol  me  ille  admonuit  ut  brevior  essem,  but  on  these  topics  yonder  sun  has 
warned  me  to  be  pretty  brief. 

1055.  (2359.)  ille  is  often  used  to  point  out  a  celebrity,  or  to  refer  to 
what  is  famed  in  story. 

hic  est  ille  Demosthenes,  this  is  the  famous  Demosthenes.  Medea  ilia, 
Medea  famed  in  story. 

223 


1 05  6- 1 060]  Appendix 


The  Determinative  Pronoun 
is 

1056.  (2365.)  is  refers  to  something  named  in  the  context: 

as, 

petit  a  rege  et  eum  pluribus  verbis  rogat  ut  id  ad  se  mittat,  he  solicits 
the  king  and  begs  him  at  considerable  length  to  send  it  to  him. 

1057.  (2367.)  With  a  connective,  is  denotes  an  important  addition: 
as,  vincula  et  ea  sempiterna,  imprisonment  and  that  too  perpetual. 

1058.  (2368.)  is  indicates  something  explained  or  restricted  by  a 
relative  or  indefinite,  qui,  quicumque,  si  quis :  as, 

unus  ex  eo  nuraero  qui  ad  caedem  parati  erant,  one  of  the  number  that 
were  ready  to  do  murder,    neque  is  sum  qui  mortis  periculo  terrear,  but  I 

am  not  the  man  to  be  scared  by  danger  of  deaths  no,  not  I. 

The  Pronoun  of  Identity 
idem 

1059.  (2371.)  idem,  tJic  same,  may  often  be  variously  ren- 
dered by  likeivise,  also,  all  the  saine,  at  once. 

iitebatur  eo  cibo  qui  et  suavissimus  esset  et  Idem  facillimus  ad  con- 
coquendum,  he  made  use  of  such  food  as  was  both  very  dainty  and 
likewise  very  easy  to  digest,  ita  f  let  ut  non  omnes  qui  Attice,  eldem  bene 
dicant,  so  it  will  be  found  that  not  all  who  speak  Attic  are  also  good 
speakers. 

The  Intensive  Pronoun 
ipse 

1060.  (2374  f.)  ipse,  self,  is  used  in  contrasts.  Thus,  it 
may  contrast  the  chief  person  with  subordinates,  or  a  person 
with  anything  belonging  to  him  :  as, 

Catillna  ipse  pertimuit,  profugit ;  hi  quid  exspectant  ?  Catiline,  their 
head,  has  fed  in  abject  terror ;  his  minions  here,  what  wait  they  for  f 
%\  munltioni,  quam  fecerat,  T.  Labienum  legatum  praefecit ;  ipse  in  Ita- 
liam  magnis  itineribus  contendit,  he  put  Labienus,  his  lieutenant,  in  clinrge 

224 


Pronouns  [i 061-1064 

of  the  fortification  he  had  made  ;  he  hurried,  himself,  to  Italy  with  forced 
inarches. 

1061.  (2376.)  ipse  is  often  used  with  personals  and  reflexives  agree- 
ing with  the  emphatic  word.     But  the  nominative  is  usually  preferred. 

neque  enim  potest  exercitum  is  continere  imperator,  qui  se  ipsum  non 
continet, /i^r  no  commander  can  keep  his  army  under  control  who  does  ?tot 
keep  his  own  self  under  control.  liinius  necem  sibi  ipse  consclvity  funius 
killed  himself. 

1062.  (2378.)  ipse  is  used  in  many  combinations  where  self  is  an  in- 
adequate translation.  It  may  sometimes  be  translated  by  mere,  of  one  s 
self,  voluntarily,  or,  with  numerals  and  dates,  exactly,  just,  or,  of  place, 
right:  as, 

non  solum  adventus  mail,  sed  etiam  metus  ipse  adfert  calamitatem, 
not  only  the  coining  of  misfortune,  but  even  the  mere  dread  of  it  brings 
disaster.  Catilinam  vel  eiecimus  vel  emisimus  vel  ipsum  egredientem 
verbis  prosecuti  sumus,  we  have  driven  Catiline  out,  or  let  him  out,  or, 
when  he  was  going  out  of  his  own  motion,  wished  him  godspeed.  Kalen- 
dis  ipsis  Novembribus,  on  the  ist  of  November  precisely,  in  ipso  vad5 
deprehensus  Indutiomarus  interficitur,  right  at  the  ford  Indutio7narus  is 
caught  and  killed. 

The  Interrogative  Pronoun 
uter  and  quis 

1063.  (2385.)  uter,  wJiether?  which?  is  used  in  questions 
about  two  things;  quis  and  qui,  luJiof  what f  in  questions 
about  more  than  two,  though  sometimes  loosely  of  two  things. 

uter  est  Insanior  horum  ?  which  of  these  is  the  greater  crank  ?  ut  quem 
veils,  nescias,  so  that  you  dont  know  which  to  choose. 


The  Indefinite  Pronoun 
quis  or  qui 
1064.  (2388.)  quis  or  qui,  a,  some,  somebody,  always  stands 
after  one  or  more  words  of  the  sentence,     quis  or  qui  is  used 
after  si  (nisi,  sive),  ne,  num,  utrum,  an,  quo,  or  quando,  in 
preference  to  aliquis,  unless  emphasis  is  intended. 
p  225 


1 065- 1 069]  Appendix 

dixerit  quis,  somebody  may  say.  hi,  si  quid  erat  durius,  concurrebant ; 
si  qui  equo  deciderat,  circumsistebant,  //  there  was  ever  any  sharpish 
work,  these  men  would  rally ;  if  a  jnan  fell  from  his  horse,  they  would 
close  round  him. 

aliquis 

1065.  (2390.)  aliquis  or  aliqui,  some  one,  some  one  or  other^ 

has  always  some  affirmative  emphasis,  and  is  opposed  to  the 

idea  oi  all,  imich,  none:  as, 

non  sine  aliqua  spe,  not  without  sdme  hope,  quaero  sitne  aliqua  actio 
an  nulla,  /  ask  whether  there  is  some  gromid for  an  action  or  none. 

quidam 

1066.  (2392.)  quIdam,  a,  a  certain,  denotes  a  person  or 
thing  that  we  cannot  describe  or  do  not  care  to. 

non  inridicule  quidam  ex  militibus  decimae  legidnis  dixit,  one  of  the 
privates  of  the  Tenth  said  a  very  dry  thing,  videmus  natiiram  su5  quo- 
dam  itinere  ad  iilttmum  pervenire,  nature  reaches  perfection  by  a  kind  of 
road  of  her  own. 

quisque 

1067.  (2394.)  quisque,  each,  each  in  particular,  each  by  him- 
self, applies  what  is  stated  of  all  to  each  several  case,  out  of  a 
number  more  than  two. 

quotiens  quaeque  cohors  procurrerat,  magnus  numerus  hostium  cade- 
bat,  as  the  cohorts  successively  charged,  a  great  number  of  the  enemy  fell 
every  time. 

1068.  (2395.)  quisque  is  sometimes  used  in  a  relative  and  demonstra- 
tive sentence  both  :  as,  quod  cuique  obtigit,  id  quisque  teneat,  let  every 
man  keep  what  he  has  got. 

1069.  (2397.)  quisque  is  often  used  with  se  or  suus,  superlatives,  and 
ordinals,  holding  an  unemphatic  place  after  these  words:  as, 

ipse  se  quisque  diligit,  a  man  always  loves  his  own  self,  optimum 
quidque  rarissimum  est,  e7Jer  the  fairest  is  the  rarest,  quinto  quoque 
annd  Sicilia  tota  censetur,  at  the  end  of  every  four  years  all  Sicily  is 
assessed. 

226 


Numerals  [1070-1073 

uterque 

1070.  (2399.)  Uterque,  each,  is  used  of  two  individuals,  and 

utrique  of  two  sets  or  parties. 

nutu  tremefactus  uterque  est  polus,  at  his  Jtod  trembled  each  pole. 
Aetoliorum  utraeque  manus  Heracleam  sese  incluserunt,  both  bands  of 
the  Aetoliatts  shut  thejnselves  up  in  Heraclea. 

quisquam  and  ullus 

*  1071.  (2400.)  quisquam,  a  single  one,  any  one  at  all,  and  ul- 
lus, a  bit  of  a,  any  at  all,  any,  are  used  chiefly  in  negative, 
interrogative,  conditional,  and  comparative  sentences,  or  with 
sine. 

interdicit  omnibus,  ne  quemquam  interficiant,  he  war7ts  them  collec- 
tively against  killitig  any  man  at  all.  si  quisquam  est  timidus,  is  ego 
sum,  if  anybody  is  timid,  I  am  the  man,  qui  saepius  cum  hoste  conflixit 
quam  quisquam  cum  inimico  concertavit,  who  has  measured  swords  oftetier 
with  the  enemy  than  anybody  ever  wrangled  with  an  opponent  in  private 
life,  sine  ullo  metu  in  ipsum  portum  penetrare  coeperunt,  without  a  bit 
of  fear  they  began  to  make  their  way  right  into  the  harbor. 

1072.  (2403.)  nemo  is  generally  used  for  non  quisquam,  nemo  umquam 
for  numquam  quisquam,  nihil  for  non  quicquam,  and  nuUus  for  non  ullus. 
If  only  two  are  spoken  of,  neuter  is  used. 


Numerals 

1073.  (2404.)  Numerals  are  divided  into  Adjectives  :  Car- 
dinal, unus,  one,  duo,  tivo,  etc. ;  Ordinal,  primus,  first,  secun- 
dus,  second,  etc. ;  Distributive,  singuli,  one  each,  bini,  two  each, 
etc.  ;  and  Numeral  Adverbs:  semel,  once,  bis,  twice,  etc. 

For  the  inflection  of  numerals,  see  262-268. 

227 


I074  (2405)] 


Appendix 


Arabic 

Cardinals 

Ordinals 

X 

unus,  one  (263) 

primus,  first  (268) 

2 

duo,  t7vo  (264) 

secundus,  second 

3 

tres,  three  (264) 

tertius,  third 

4 

quattuor,  four 

quartus,  fourth 

5 

quinque,  five 

quintus,  ///// 

6 

sex,  six 

sextus,  sixth 

7 

septem,  seven 

Septimus,  seventh 

8 

octo,  eight 

octavus,  eighth 

9 

novem,  nine 

nonus.  ninth 

10 

decern,  ten 

decimus,  tenth 

II 

undecim,  eleven 

iindecimus,  eleventh 

12 

duodecim 

duodecimus 

13 

tredecim 

tertius  decimus 

14 

quattuordecim 

quartus  decimus 

15 

quiridecim 

quintus  decimus 

16 

sedecim 

sextus  decimus 

17 

septendecim 

Septimus  decimus 

18 

duodevi^inti 
undevlginti 

duodevicesimus 

19 

iindevicesimus 

20 

viginti,  twenty 

vicesimus,  twentieth 

21 

viginti  unus  or  unus  et 

vicesimus  primus  or  unus  et  vice- 

viginti 

simus 

22 

viginti   duo   or   duo  et 

vicesimus  alter  or  alter  et  vice- 

28 

duodetriginta    [viginti 

duodetricesimus                 [simus 

29 

undetriginta 

undetricesimus 

30 

triginta 

tricesimus 

40 

quadraginta 

quadragesimus 

50 

quinquaginta 

quinqua^esimus 

60 

sexaginta 

sexagesimus 

70 

septuaginta 

septuagesimus 

80 

octoginta 

octogesimus 

90 

nonaginta 

nonagesimus 

99 

undecentum 

undecentesimus 

100 

centum,  one  hundred 

centesimus,  one  hundredth 

lOI 

centum  unus  or  centum 

centesimus  primus  or  centesimus 

200 

ducenti(266)     [et  unus 

ducentesimus                [et  primus 

300 

trecentl 

trecentesimus 

400 

quadringenti 

quadringentesimus 

500 

quingenti 

quingentesimus 

600 

sescenti 

sescentesimus 

700 

septingenti 

septingentesimus 

800 

octingenti 

octingentesimus 

QOO 

ndngenti 

nongentesimus 

1,000 

mille,  thousand  (267) 

millesimus,  thousandth 

2,000 

duo  millia 

bis  millesimus 

5,000 

quinque  millia 

quinquiens  millesimus 

10,000 

decern  millia 

deciens  millesimus 

50,000 

quinquaginta  millia 

quinquagiens  millesimus 

100,000 

centum  millia 

centiens  millesimus 

1,000,000 

deci€ns  centSna  millia 

deciens  centi€ns  millesimus 

228 


List  of  Numerals 


[1074 


Distributives 

Numeral  Adverbs 

Roman 

singuli,  one  each  (268) 

semel,  07ice 

1 

blni,  two  each 

bis,  twice 

ii 

terni,  three  each 

ter,  thrice 

III 

quaterni,  four  each 

quater,  four  times 

INI  or  IV 

quini,  five  each 

quinquiens,  five  times 

V 

seni,  six  each 

sexiens,  six  times 

VI 

septeni,  seven  each 

septiens,  seven  times 

VII 

octoni,  eight  each 

OCtiens,  eight  times 

VIII 

noveni,  nine  each 

noviens,  nine  times 

Villi  or  IX 

deni,  ten  each 

deciens,  ten  times 

X 

undeni,  eleven  each 

iindeciens,  eleven  times 

XI 

duodeni 

duodeciens 

XII 

terni  denI 

terdeciens 

XIII 

quaterni  denI 

quater  deciens 

XllllorXIV 

quini  denI 

quindeciens 

XV 

sen!  denI 

sedeciens 

XVI 

septeni  deni 

septiens  deciens 

XVII 

duodeviceni 

octiens  deciens 

XVIII 

iindeviceni 

noviens  deciens 

XVIIIIor  XIX 

viceni,  twenty  each 

viciens,  twenty  times 

XX 

viceni  singuli  or  singuli  et 

viciens  semel  or  semel  et 

XXI 

viceni 

viciens 

viceni  bini  or  bini  et  vi- 

viciens  bis  or  bis  et  viciens 

XXII 

duodetriceni               [ceni 

duodetriciens 

XXVIII 

lindetriceni 

*undetriciens 

XXVIIIIorXXIX 

triceni 

triciens 

XXX 

quadrageni 

quadragiens 

XXXXorXl 

quinquageni 

quinquagiens 

± 

sexageni 

sexagiens 

IX 

septuageni 

septuagiens 

IXX 

octogeni 

octogiens 

IXXX 

nonageni 

nonagiens 

IXXXXorXC 

dndecenteni 

*undecentiens 

IXXXXVIIII    or 

centeni,  a  hundred  each 

centiens,  a  hundred  times 

C                [XCIX 

centeni  singuli 

centiens  semel  or  centiens 

CI 

duceni 

ducentiens             [et  semel 

cc 

treceni 

trecentiens 

ccc 

quadringeni 

quadringentiens 

cccc 

quingeni 

quingentiens 

D 

sesceni 

sescentiens 

DC 

septingeni 

septingentiens 

DCC 

octingeni 

octingentiens 

DCCC 

nongeni 

nongentiens 

DCCCC 

singula  millia,  a  thousand 

milliens,  a  thousand  times 

00 

bina  millia                   [each 

bis  milliens 

CX)00 

quina  millia 

quinquiens  milliens 

g) 

dena  millia 

deciens  milliens 

® 

quinquagena  millia 

quinquagiens  milliens 

i 

centena  millia 

centiens  milliens 

m 

deciens  centena  millia 

deciens  centiens  milliens 

1x1 

229 


1 075-1083]  Appendix 


Notation 

1075.  (2406.)  Numbers  are  noted  by  combinations  of  the  characters 
1  =  1;  V  =  5;  X=io;  XflfOrL  =  5o:  C=ioo;  D=5oo;  GO,  post- 
Augustan  M  =  1000. 

1076.  (2408.)  To  denote  10,000  the  sign  for  1000  was  doubled:  thus. 
(^.  Anothercircle  was  added  to  denote  100,000;  thus,  ^.  The  halves 
of  these  signs  were  used  for  5000  and  50,000  :  thus,  g)  and  |). 

Some  Forms  of  Numerals 

1077.  (2413.)  In  the  ordinals  from  twentieth  upwards,  the  older  forms 
vicensimus,  tricensimus,  etc.,  etc.,  are  not  infrequently  found  instead  of 
vicesimus,  tricesimus,  etc.,  etc. 

1078.  (2414.)  In  the  numeral  adverbs  from  quinquiens  upwards,  later 
forms  in  -ies  are  often  found  :  as.  quinquies,  decies,  etc.,  etc. 

1079.  (2415.)  In  cardinals  and  ordinals  from  thirtee7i  to  seventeen  in- 
clusive, the  larger  number  sometimes  comes  first,  and  in  cardinals  et  is 
sometimes  used  :  as,  decern  tres,  thirteen,  fundos  decern  et  tres  reliquit, 
he  left  thirteen  farms. 

Distributives 

1080.  (2420,)  Distributives  are  used  to  denote  an  equal  division  among 
several  persons  or  things,  and  in  expressions  of  multiplication  :  as, 

bin!  senatdres  singulis  cohortibus  praepositi,  two  senators  were  put 
over  e%)ery  cohort,     bis  bina,  twice  two. 

1081.  (2421.)  Distributives  are  also  used  with  substantives  which 
have  no  singular,  or  which  have  a  different  meaning  in  the  singular; 
but  in  this  use  07ie  is  always  uni,  not  singuli,  and  three  trini,  not  terni:  as. 

ut  una  castra  iam  facta  ex  binls  viderentur,  so  that  one  camp  seemed 
now  to  have  bee7i  formed  out  of  two.     trlnis  catenis  vinctus,  in  triple  irons. 

Fractions 

1082.  (2424.)  One  half  may  be  expressed  by  dimidium  or  dimidia 
pars;  other  fractions  with  i  as  a  numerator  by  ordinals,  with  or  without 
pars :  as,  tertia  pars  or  tertia,  \. 

1083.  (2425.)  If  the  numerator  is  greater  than  i  it  is  usually  expressed 
by  the  cardinal  feminine,  with  the  ordinal  feminine  for  the  denomina- 
tor :  as,  duae  septimae,  f . 

230 


Rules  of  Quantity  [  1 084- 1 09 3 

Prosody 
RULES    OF   QUANTITY 

1084.  (2429.)  For  the  general  principles  of  length  of  vowels  and  syl- 
lables, see  43-47.  Some  exceptions  to  these  principles  may  be  men- 
tioned here. 

1085.  (158.)  A  diphthong  is  regularly  long (28).  But  in  compounds, 
ae  of  prae  is  shortened  before  a  vowel  or  h  (43) :  as,  praeaciitus,  prae- 
hibeo. 

1086.  (159.)  In  some  instances  a  vowel  before  another  vowel  is  long 
(43):  thus. 

1087.  (160.)  Old  genitives  in -al  (1 37)  have  a:  as,  aulal.  diei,  genitive 
or  dative,  has  e. 

1088.  (162.)  Genitives  in  -ius  havei:  as,  nulllus  ;  but  these  some- 
times shorten  i  in  verse. 

1089.  (163.)  Long  i  is  found  in  fio  throughout,  except  in  fit  and 
usually  before  er:  as,  fierem,  fieri.     Also  in  ^\\xs^  godly. 

1090.  (164.)  In  many  Greek  words  a  long  vowel  comes  before  another 
vowel :  as,  aer,  Aeneas. 

Monosyllables 

1091.  (2430.)  Monosyllables  ending  in  a  vowel  or  a 
single  consonant  have  the  vowel  long:  as, 

dos,  sol,  a,  pes. 
Exceptions 

1092.  (2431  f.)  The  vowel  is  short  in  monosyllables  ending  in  b,  d, 
m,  and  t :  as,  ab,  ad,  dum,  dat;  in  the  enclitics  -que,  -ne,  -ve,  -ce;  and  in 
the  words  cor,  mel,  os,  bone,  ac,  vir,  is,  quis,  fac,  fer,  per,  ter,  an,  bis, 
in,  cis,  nee,  vel,  es. 

Polysyllables 

Penults 

1093.  (2434.)  Disyllabic  perfects  and  perfect  partici- 
ples have  the  vowel  of  the  penult  long  when  it  stands 
before  a  single  consonant:  as, 

veni,  vidi,  vicl,  fotus. 
231 


1 094- 1 1 03]  Appendix :  Prosody 

Exceptions 

1094.  (2435.)  Nine  perfects  have  the  penult  short. 

bibi,  -fidi       dedi,  scidi       steti,  stiti       tuli,  -tudi,  per-culi. 

1095.  (2436.)  Ten  perfect  participles  have  the  penult  short : 

citus,  datus      itum,  ratus     -rutus,  satus      situs,  status      litus,  quitus. 

Final  Syllables 
•  Ending    in    a    Vowf.l 

1096.  (2437.)  In  words  of  more  than  one  syllable, 
final  a  and  e  are  short ;  final  o,  U,  and  i,  are  long. 

Exceptions 

1097.  (2438.)  Final  a  is  long  in  the  ablative,  in  indeclinable  words,  and 
in  the  imperative :  as,  mensa,  quadraginta  (but  ita  and  quia  have  short 
a),  ama. 

1098.  (2440.)  Final  e  is  long  in  cases  of  nouns  with  stems  in  -e-  (230), 
in  adverbs  from  stems  in  -o-,  and  in  the  imperative  singular  active  of 
verbs  in  -ere:  as,  die,  alte,  doce.     So  fere,  ferme,  but  bene,  male. 

1099.  (2442.)  Final  o  is  short  in  the  nominatives  ego,  duo,  and  some- 
times in  the  nominative  of  stems  in  -n-  (170):  as,  mentio,  virgo.  o  is 
regularly  short  in  the  ablatives  cito  and  modo,  used  as  adverbs. 

1 100.  (2445.)  Final  i  is  short  in  nisi,  quasi,  and  common  in  mihl,  tibf, 
sibf ;  ibf,  ubl. 

Ending  in  a  Single  Consonant  not  s 

1101.  (2447.)  A  final  syllable  ending  in  a  single  con- 
sonant not  s  has  its  vowel  short. 

Exceptions 

1 102.  (2448.)  The  last  vowel  is  long  in  compounds  of  par;  in  the 
contracted  genitive  plural  of  stems  in  -u-:  as  currum ;  in  all  cases  of 
illic  and  istic  except  the  nominative  masculine ;  in  the  adverbs  illuc  and 
istuc. 

Ending  in  s 

1 103.  (2451.)  Final  syllables  in  is  and  us  have  the 

232 


Figures  of  Prosody  [ 1 1 04- mo 

vowel  short;  those  in  as,  es,  and  os,  have  the  vowel 
long. 

Exceptions 

1104.  (2452  f.)  Final  is  has  i  in  all  plural  cases:  as,  omnis ;  vils,  v6- 
bis.  Also  in  the  nominatives  singular  Quirls  and  Samnis,  in  the  second 
person  singular  of  verbs  in  -Ire,  in  mavis,  in  compounds  of  sis,  and  in 
all  present  subjunctives  singular:  as,  veils,  malis,  nolis. 

1 105.  (2454.)  u  is  long  in  the  nominative  singular  of  consonant  stems 
with  Q  before  the  final  stem  consonant :  as,  tellus,  stem  telliir- ;  paliis, 
stem  palQd-;  in  the  genitive  singular  and  nominative  and  accusative 
plural  of  nouns  with  stems  in  -u- :  as,  fructiis. 

1106.  (2456.)  Final  es  has  short  e  in  the  nominative  singular  of 
stems  in  -d-  and  -t-  which  have  the  genitive  in  -idis,  -itis,  and  -etis  (164. 
165):  as,  praeses,  teges,  comes  (but  e  in  abies,  aries,  and  paries);  also  in 
penes,  and  in  compounds  of  es,  thou  art. 

1107.  (2457.)  Final  os  has  short  o  in  the  nominative  of  stems  in  -o- : 
as,  servos ;  also  in  compos,  impos. 

Position 

1108.  (2458.)  For  the  general  rule  of  position,  see  46 ;  but, 
except  in  the  thesis  of  a  foot,  a  final  syllable  ending  with  a 
short  vowel  generally  remains  short  before  a  word  beginning 
with  two  consonants  or  a  double  consonant :  as,  moUia  strata, 
nemorosa  Zacynthos. 


FIGURES  OF  PROSODY 

1109.  (2482  ff.)  Elision.    In  verse,  a  final  vowel,  a  diphthong, 

or  final  m  with  a  preceding  short  vowel  had  only  a  faint  sound 

before  a  vowel  or  h  at  the  beginning  of  the  next  word  :  as, 

quidve  moror,  s(i)  omnis  un(6)  6rdin(e)  habetis  Achivos. 
monstr(um)  horrend(um)  inform(e)  ingens,  cui  liimen  ademptum. 

In  reading  verse,  we  generally  drop  such  endings  altogether. 

mo.  Hiatus.     The  omission  of  elision  is  called  hiatus:  as, 
Nereidum  matri  et  Neptiino  Aegaeo. 

233 


1 1 1 1  - 1 1 1 8  J  Appendix :  Prosody 

nil.  (2499.)  Synizesis  (Greek  o-ui/t'fr/o-ty.  a  settliitg  together).  Two 
vowels  (or  a  vowel  and  a  diphlhong)  which  belong  to  different  syllables 
sometimes  coalesce  so  as  to  form  one  syllable.  This  is  called  Synizesis. 
Examples  are:  meo,  eadem,  cuius,  aurei. 

1112.  (2503.)  Hardening.  A  vocalic  i  or  u  is  sometimes  made  con- 
sonantal before  another  vowel :  as,  abiete,  ariete. 

•  1 1 13.  (2504.)  Softening.  Conversely,  a  consonantal  i  or  u  some- 
times becomes  vocalized  before  a  vowel,  thus  giving  an  additional  syl- 
lable :  as,  siliiae  for  silvae. 

1114.  (2505.)  Diastole  (Greek  diao-roXj],  a  drawing  asunder).  A 
syllable  which  in  verse  is  generally  short  is  sometimes  used  as  long  for 
metrical  convenience.  The  syllable  so  employed  generally  falls  under 
the  verse-ictus,  and  in  most  cases  is  immediately  followed  by  the  prin- 
cipal caesura,  or  by  a  pause  in  the  sense.     Examples  are: 

terga  fatigamus  hasta,  nee  tarda  senectus. 
turn  sic  Mercurium  adloquitur  ac  talia  mandat. 
In  nearly  all  cases  this  lengthening  is  not  arbitrary,  but  the  "  length- 
ened "  syllable  is  one  that  was  originally  long. 

1 1 15.  (2507.)  Systole  (Greek  mxTToXri,  a  drawing  together).  Con- 
versely a  syllable  which  in  verse  is  regularly  long  is  sometimes  shortened 
for  metrical  convenience :  as,  dederunt.  In  most  cases  this  shortening 
is  not  arbitrary,  but  represents  a  pronunciation  which  was  in  actual 
use,  especially  among  the  common  people, 

11 16.  (2508.)  Syncope  (Greek  (TvyKoirt),  a  cutting  short).  A  short 
vowel  is  often  dropped  between  two  consonants  :  as,  surpite  for  surri- 
pite,  repostum  for  repositum. 

1 1 17.  (2509.)  Tmesis  (Greek  Tfiiimg,  a  cutting)  is  the  separation  of 
the  parts  of  a  word  :  as,  septem  subiecta  trioni  =  septemtrioni  subiecta. 


VERSIFICATION 
1 1 18.  (25 1 1.)  Rhythm  (Gr.  pvOjio^,  from  pelvy  to  flow) 
is  the  effect  of  regularity  product  by  the  discrimina- 
tion of  a  movement  or  sound  into  uniform  intervals  of 
time.  It  is  often  marked  by  a  stress  or  ictus  recurring 
at  fixed  intervals. 

234 


Versification 


[1119- 


Rhythm  is  by  no  means  confined  to  verse.  Music,  dancing,  and 
even  the  regular  beat  of  a  trip-hammer,  have  rhythm. 

1 1 19.  (2512.)  Metre  (Gr.  fxerpov,  a  measure)  is  the 
definite  measurement  of  verse  by  feet,  lines,  strophes, 
systems,  etc. 

1120.  (2513.)  Latin  verse  is  quantitative,  the  rhythm  de- 
pending upon  the  quantity  of  the  syllables.  The  ictus  natur- 
ally falls  upon  a  long  syllable  (or  its  equivalent).  English 
verse,  on  the  other  hand,  is  accentual,  its  rhythm  depending 
upon  the  accent  of  words. 

1121.  (2515.)  The  Unit  of  Measure  is  the  duration  of  a  short  syl- 
lable and  is  called  a  Time  or  Mora.  The  mora  did  not  have  an  absolute 
length,  but  varied  with  the  nature  of  the  rhythm.  For  greater  con- 
venience, however,  it  is  assumed  that  its  length  was  uniform,  and 
equalled  that  of  an  eighth  note  1^  A  long  syllable,  being  equal  to  two 
shorts,  has  a  length  of  two  morae,  which  is  assumed  to  be  the  same  as 
that  of  our  quarter-note    I     Hence  in  notation  w  =    1^  and  —  =    I 

1122.  (2519.)  Feet.  Latin  verse  (like  English)  is  measured 
by  groups  of  syllables  called  Feet.  Each  of  these  groups  has 
a  definite  length  of  so  many  morae  (1121):  as, 


Feet  of  Four  Morae 

Name 

Sign 

Musically 

Example 

Dactyl 
Spondee 

-w     w 

1    ^^ 

ducimus 
feci 

1123.  (2520.)  Arsis  and  Thesis.  Every  complete  foot 
consists  of  two  parts,  an  accented  and  an  unaccented.  The 
part  on  which  the  rhythmical  accent  or  ictus  falls  is  called  the 
Thesis  (Gr.  Oiaig,  a  setting  dowii).  The  unaccented  part  of 
the  foot  is  termed  the  Arsis  (Gr.  ojorrfc,  a  raising). 

The  name  Thesis  originally  referred  to  the  setting  down  of  the  foot 

235 


1 1 24- 1 1 29]  Appendix :  Prosody 

in  beating  time  or  marching,  or  to  the  movement  of  the  leader's  hand 
in  making  the  downward  beat ;  and  Arsis  in  like  manner  meant  the 
raising  of  the  foot  or  hand. 

1 124.  (2532.)  A  Rhythmical  Series  or  Colon  is  a  group  of  two  or  more 
feet  (but  not  more  than  six)  which  are  united  into  a  rhythmic  whole  by 
strengthening  one  of  the  ictuses,  so  that  it  becomes  the  principal  or 
dominant  ictus  of  the  whole  group. 

1 125.  (2533.)  The  Vp:rse.  A  rhythmical  series,  or  group  of  two  (or 
even  three)  series,  which  forms  a  distinct  and  separate  whole  is  called 
a  Verse.  The  final  syllable  of  a  verse  terminates  a  word,  and  may  be 
either  long  or  short  (whence  it  is  termed  syllaba  anceps)  without  regard 
to  the  rhythm.  Hiatus  (mo)  is  freely  allowed  at  the  end  of  a  verse 
(though  in  rare  cases  elision  occurs  before  a  vowel  at  the  beginning  of 
the  following  verse;  see  11 37). 

1126.  (2536.)  Names  of  Verses.  Verses  are  called /r^t7m/<:, /^w^/r, 
dactylic,  etc.,  according  to  their  fundamental  (or  characteristic)  feet. 
A  verse  which  contains  one  foot  is  called  a  monometer,  one  of  two  a 
dimeter,  ov\^  of  three  a  trimeter,  one  of  four  a  tetrameter,  one  of  five  a 
pentameter,  and  one  of  six  a  hexaineter. 

1127.  (2542.)  Caesura  and  Diaeresis.  A  Caesura  (liter- 
ally a  cuttings  from  cacdo,  I  cut)  is  the  break  in  a  verse  pro- 
duced by  the  ending  of  a  word  within  a  foot.  When  the  end 
of  a  word  coincides  with  the  end  of  a  foot,  the  break  is  called 
a  Diaeresis  (Gr.  ^laipim^;  a  separating),  A  caesura  is  marked 
II,  a  diaeresis  Jf. 

The  word  caesura  is  often  loosely  used  to  include  both  caesura 
proper  and  diaeresis. 

1 128.  (2543.)  Strictly  speaking,  there  is  a  caesura  (or  diaeresis,  as 
the  case  may  be)  wherever  a  word  ends  within  a  verse:  but  the  main 
incision  in  the  verse  is  so  much  more  important  than  the  rest  that  it  is 
often  called  \.\\&  principal  caesura,  or  simply  the  caesura, 

1129.  (2544.)  Caesuras  are  named  according  to  their  position  in  the 
verse;  thus  a  caesura  after  the  third  half-foot  (i.  e.  in  the  second  foot) 
is  called  trithemimeral  (from  Gr.  TpidrjfMififpfjs,  containini!^  three  halves), 
one  after  the  fifth  half-foot  (i.  e.  in  the  third  foot)  penthemimeral  (Gr. 
nevBrjfiififp^s,  consisting  of  five  halves),  one  after  the  seventh  half-foot 
(i.  e.  in  the  fourth  foot)  hephthemimeral  {Gr.  €<l>$r]fitfi(pfjs),  etc. 

236 


Versification  [  1 1 30- 1 1 34 


DACTYLIC    RHYTHMS 

1130.  (2555.)  In  dactylic  rhythms  the  fundamental  foot  is  the  dactyl 
{L  v-  w),  for  which  its  metrical  equivalent,  the  spondee  {L  _),  is  fre- 
quently substituted. 

The  Dactylic  Hexameter 

1131.  (2556.)  The  Dactylic  Hexameter  is  the  verse  reg- 
ularly employed  in  epic,  didactic,  and  bucolic  poetry,  and  is 
used  by  the  Latin  writers  oftener  than  any  other  measure. 
It  consists  of  six  feet,  the  last  of  which  is  a  spondee  (but  with 
the  privilege  of  syllaba  anceps ;  see  1125).  The  fifth  foot  is 
usually  a  dactyl ;  but  sometimes  a  spondee  is  employed,  in 
which  case  the  verse  is  called  spondaic.  In  each  of  the  other 
four  feet  either  a  dactyl  or  a  spondee  may  be  used.  The 
scheme  is  therefore : 

^  ^^\  1.  ^^\  L    -^\  L    -^  I  I  l-J  I  Z  _ 

1132.  (2557.)  A  caesura  which  comes  immediately  after  the  thesis  of 
a  foot  is  called  masculine ;  one  which  falls  in  the  middle  of  the  arsis  (i.  e. 
after  the  first  short  of  a  dactyl)  is  l^rmed  fe?nznme. 

II33-  (2558.)  The  principal  caesura  in  the  Latin  hexameter  is  most 
frequently  the  penthemimeral  (1129):  as  in: 

Arma  virumque  cano  ||  Troiae  qui  primus  ab  oris. 
Next  in  order  of  frequency  stands  the  hephthemimeral,  which  is  usually 
accompanied  by  a  secondary  trithemimeral,  and  in  many  cases  also  by 
a  feminine  caesura  in  the  third  foot:  as  in  the  verse, 

Inslgnem  ||  pietate  ||  virum  ||  tot  adire  labores. 
Sometimes,  though  more  rarely,  the  principal  break  in  the  line  is  the 
feminine  caesura  in  the  third  foot,  as  in  the  verse, 

Spargens  umida  mella  ||  soporiferumque  papaver. 

1134.  (2559.)  The  diaeresis  (see  1127)  after  the  fourth  foot  (often 
called  "bucolic  diaeresis  "  from  its  use  by  pastoral  writers)  sometimes 
occurs,  but  is  much  less  common  in  Latin  hexameters  than  in  Greek. 
An  example  is 

Die  mihi,  Damoeta,  ||  cuium  pecus  ?  :J|i  An  Meliboei  ? 
237 


1 1 35-1 1 38]    Appendix :  Order  of  Words 

^^35'  (2561.)  The  great  flexibility  of  the  hexameter  makes  it  an  ad- 
mirable vehicle  of  poetic  expression.  Accumulated  spondees  give  the 
verse  a  slow  and  ponderous  movement ;  as  in  the  line 

111(1)  in|ter  se|se  ||  majgna  vi  |  bracchia  |  tollunt. 
The  multiplication  of  dactyls  imparts  to  the  verse  a  comparatively 
rapid  and  impetuous  motion,  as  in  the  famous  verse 

Quadrupe|dante  pu|trem  ||  soniitu  quatit  |  ungula  |  campum. 

But  even  when  dactyls  are  numerous,  the  Latin  hexameter,  "the 
stateliest  measure  ever  moulded  by  the  lips  of  man,"  should  not  be  read 
with  the  jerky  f  movement  which  is  characteristic  of  the*  English  hex- 
ameter. 

1 136.  (2562.)  The  following  passage  may  serve  to  illustrate  the  move- 
ment of  the  hexameter,  and  to  show  how  the  use  of  the  different  cae- 
suras imparts  variety  to  the  measure: 

O  socill  II  — nequ(e)  e|n(im)  ignajri  ||  sumus  |  ante  ma|16rum— 
o  pas|sl  gravijora,  ||  da|bit  deus  |  his  quoque  |  finem. 
Vos  et  I  Scyllae|am  ||  rabilem  ||  penijtusque  so|nantes 
accejstis  scopu|16s,  |j  vos  |  et  Cylclopea  j  saxa 
experiti;  ||  revo|cat(e)  ani|m6s,  ||  mae|stumque  tilmorem 
mittite:  |  forsan  et  j  haec  ||  oilim  ||  memilnisse  iulvabit. 

Compare  in  English: 

Rolls  and  rages  amain  the  restless,  billowy  ocean, 

While  with  a  roar  that  soundeth  afar  the  white-maned  breakers 

Leap  up  against  the  cliffs,  like  foemen  madly  rejoicing. 

1137.  (2568.)  Averse  which  is  connected  with  the  following  one  by 
elision  is  called  hypermetrical.  Such  verses  are  rare,  and  usually  end 
with  the  enclitics  -que  or  -ve. 


Order  of  Words 


1 138.  The  order  of  words  in  Latin  admits  of  greater  variety  than  in 
English  because  Latin  is  the  more  richly  inflected  language.  Two  gen- 
eral types  of  order  may  be  recognized,  the  Grammatical  and  the  Rhe- 
torical. In  the  former,  the  words  in  a  sentence  and  the  sentences  in  a 
period  proceed  according  to  their  grammatical  relations.  In  the  latter, 
they  are  arranged  with  a  view  to  emphasis,  greater  clearness,  or  euphony. 

238 


Grammatical  Order  [ 1 1 39- 1 1 45 


Grammatical  Order 

1139.  When  no  part  of  a  sentence  needs  special  emphasis, 
the  subject  usually  comes  first,  the  predicate  last,  and  the 
other  words  of  the  sentence  between  the  subject  and  predi- 
cate :  as, 

Iphicrates,  Atheniensis,  non  tarn  magnitudine  rerum  gestarum  quam 
disciplina  mllitari  nobilitatus  est,  Iphicrates  of  Athens  was  famous  not 
so  much  for  the  greatness  of  his  achievements  as  for  his  knowledge  of  the 
art  of  war, 

1 140.  Attributes  (462),  unless  emphatic,  follow  their  substantives  :  as, 
coniurationem  ndbilitatis  fecit,  he  formed  a  conspiracy  among  the  no- 
bility, tribunus  militum,  vir  et  consilii  magni  et  virtutis,  tribune  of  the 
soldiers,  a  man  of  great  judgment  ajtd  valor,  provinciam  nostram,  our 
province,  vir  sine  metu,  a  man  without  fear.  Catilina  ipse,  Catiline 
himself.     Theomnastus  quidam,  a  person  7iamed  Theom7iastus. 

1 141.  But  demonstrative,  determinative,  relative,  and  interrogative 
pronouns  precede  their  substantives  :  as, 

cum  his  quinque  legionibus,  with  these  five  legions,  ob  eas  causas  ei 
miinitioni  Labienum  praefecit, /i:?^  these  reasons  he  put  Labienus  i?i  com- 
mand of  that  fortification,  qua  spe  adducti,  impelled  by  the  hope  of  this. 
quis  senator?  luhat  senator? 

1 142.  Appositives  follow  the  word  they  explain:  as,  Cornelia,  mater 
Gracchorum,  Cornelia,  mother  of  the  Gracchi. 

1 143.  The  object  precedes  the  verb,  and  the  indirect  object  pre- 
cedes the  direct  object :  as, 

duas  fossas  perduxit,  he  made  two  trenches,  decima  legi5  §1  gratias 
egit,  the  tenth  legion  gave  him  thanks. 

1 144.  No  general  rule  can  be  given  for  the  position  of  adjectives. 
They  both  precede  and  follow  their  substantives.  The  common  adjec- 
tives like  bonus,  malus,  etc.,  and  adjectives  of  quantity,  as  omnes  and 
ceterl,  also  cardinals,  usually  precede;  but  ordinals  usually  follow.  In 
some  phrases,  the  position  of  the  adjective  is  fixed  by  custom :  as,  popu- 
lus  Romanus,  res  publica.  Sacra  via,  pontifex  maximus. 

1145.  Adverbs  precede  the  words  which  they  qualify:  as, 
Ubii  magnopere  orabant,  the  Ubians  earnestly  eiitreated.     egregie  for- 

cxceptionally  brave. 


tis,  exceptionally  brave 

239 


1 1 46-1 1 50]    Appendix :  Order  of  Words 


Rhetorical  Order 

1146.  Any  deviation  from  the  grammatical  order  (1139)  ^^' 
suits  in  rhetorical  order.  This  is  to  emphasize  some  word  or 
phrase,  to  indicate  the  connection  of  sentences,  or  for  eu- 
phony.    . 

Deviation  for  ExMPHasis 

1147.  Inversion.  The  most  prominent  places  in  the  sentence  are 
the  first  and  the  last  when  occupied  by  other  words  than  the  subject 
and  the  verb  respectively  (1139):  as, 

flebunt  Germanicum  etiam  ignoti :  vindicabitis  vos,  even  strangers 
will  vree^  for  Gertnanicus :  YOU  will  avenge  ///;//.  liice  sunt  clariora 
tua  consilia,  your  plans  are  as  clear  as  daylight.  But  forms  of  sum, 
meaning  there  is,  there  are,  regularly  stand  first,  with  no  emphasis:  as, 
erant  omnlno  itinera  duo,  there  were  in  all  two  roads. 

1148.  Anaphora.  This  is  the  repetition  of  a  word  in  the  same 
position,  or  the  recurrence  of  series  of  words  in  the  same  order:  as, 

te  ut  ulla  res  frangat  ?  tu  ut  umquam  te  corrigas  ?  tu  ut  ullam  fugam 
meditere  ?  anything  break  you  dowti  ?  you  ever  reform  ?  you  e^'er  think 
of  running  away  ? 

1 149.  Separation  or  Hyperbaton.  When  two  words  that  would 
naturally  stand  together  are  both  to  be  made  emphatic,  this  may  be  ef- 
fected by  separating  them  :  as, 

Gallia  est  omnis  divisa  in  partes  tres,  Gaul,  including  everything  under 
the  name,  is  divided  into  three  parts,  angustos  se  fines  habere  arbi- 
trantur,  they  considered  their  confines  too  narrow. 

1 150.  Chiasm.  To  secure  a  double  contrast  the  contrasted  words 
may  be  arranged  in  the  following  order,  which  is  called  Chiasm  or 
Chiastic  order,  from  the  name  of  the  Greek  letter  X,  chi : 

a    b 

X 

b    a 

fragile  corpus  animus  sempiternus  movet,  our  frail  body  is  swayed  by 
a  soul  imperishable.  The  chiastic  arrangement  is  often  applied  to 
clauses :  as,  ratio  nostra  consentit,  pugnat  oratio,  our  views  agree,  the 
conflict  is  in  our  expression. 

240 


specific  Words  [ 1 1 5 1- 1 1 59 


Deviation  for  Clearness 

1151.  The  grammatical  order  (1139)  is  often  abandoned  in  the  inter- 
est of  greater  clearness.  For  example,  words  referring  back  to  a  pre- 
ceding sentence  are  often  put  early  in  their  own  sentence.  Hence 
many  connecting  phrases  are  found  at  the  beginnings  of  sentences. 

Horum  omnium  fortissimi  sunt  Belgae,  of  all  the  above-named,  the 
Belgians  are  the  bravest,  ex  eo  oppido  pons  ad  Helvetios  pertinet,  a 
bridge  leads  from  that  town  over  to  the  Helvetians.  Examples  of  con- 
necting phrases  are:  qua  de  causa, qua  in  re, quibus  rebus  cognitis,  quam 
ob  rem,  etc. 

Deviation  for  Euphony 

1 152.  The  principles  which  govern  euphony  can  only  be  learned  from 
much  reading  of  Latin  and  observation  of  Roman  taste.  In  general, 
successions  of  many  short  words,  of  many  long  words,  and  of  many 
words  with  like  endings  were  avoided.  So  also  a  dactyl  and  spondee 
at  the  end  of  a  sentence  :  as,  esse  videtur. 

Position  of  some  Specific  Words 

1 153.  ipse  commonly  follows  another  pronoun  denoting  the  same 
person  or  thing:  as,  me  ipse  consolor,  /  console  myself.  So  hdc  ipsum, 
tua  ipsius,  sua  ipsdrum,  etc.  , 

1 154.  Demonstrative  pronouns  are  frequently  placed  between  a  sub- 
stantive and  its  attributes :  as,  antiquo  illo  more,  that  good  old  custom. 

1 155.  omnes  commonly  follows  alii,  ceteri,  reliqui,  and  demonstrative 
pronouns :  as,  alia  omnia,  ceteri  omnes,  hi  omnes. 

1156.  quisque  regularly  follows  se  or  suus,  superlatives  or  ordinals: 
see  1069. 

1 157.  Interrogatives  regularly  stand  first  (i  \\\),  but  may  be  preceded 
by  an  emphatic  word  or  phrase :  as,  deus  falli  qui  potuit  ?  how  can  a  god 
be  deceived? 

1 158.  For  the  position  of  prepositions,  see  668. 

1 159.  enim,  autem,  vero,  and  usually  igitur,  follow  one  or  sometimes 
more  words.  In  old  Latin,  however,  enim,  verily,  often  comes  first, 
etiam  generally  precedes,  quoque  and  quidem  always  follow  the  emphatic 
word ;  in  negations  ne  precedes  and  quidem  follows  the  emphatic  word. 

Q  241 


1 1 60- 1 1 6 5  ]       Appendix :   The  Calendar 

1160.  Negatives  regularly  stand  immediately  before  the  word  to  which 
they  belong.  In  the  periphrastic  forms  of  the  verb  non  generally  pre- 
cedes the  form  of  sum  :  as,  passus  non  est,  he  did  not  allow.  When  non 
refers  to  the  whole  clause,  it  often  stands  first  with  emphasis:  as,  non 
mihf  uxor  aut  filius  cariores  republica  sunt,  wife  or  son  is  not  dearer  to 
me  than  tJie  republic. 

Arrangement  of  Subordinate  Clauses 

1161.  The  parts  of  a  complex  sentence  are  generally  ar- 
ranged on  the  plan  of  the  simple  sentence :  main  subject  first, 
main  verb  last,  subordinate  clauses  between  :  as, 

Aedui,  cum  se  defendere  n5n  possent,  legatos  ad  Caesarem  mittunt, 

the  Aeduans,  finding  that  they  could  not  defend  themselves,  send  envoys  to 
Caesar,  Flaccus,  quid  alii  postea  facturi  essent,  scire  non  poterat, 
Flaccus  could  not  tell  what  other  people  would  do  in  the  future. 

1 162.  The  regular  arrangement  admits  of  numerous  variations,  which 
must  be  learned  from  works  on  style,  or  still  better  by  attentive  read- 
ing of  the  authors.     The  following  general  points  may  be  noticed  : 

1 163.  Temporal,  conditional,  and  concessive  clauses  regularly  pre- 
cede the  main  clause  .  as, 

eo  cum  venio,  praetor  quiescebat,  when  'I  got  there,  the  praetor  was 
taking  a  nap.     si  vis,  potes,  you  cati,  if  you  will. 

1164.  Clauses  of  purpose  and  result  and  indirect  questions  regularly 
follow  the  main  clause,  but  sometimes  precede  for  emphasis. 

Ariovistus  tantos  sibf  spiritus  sumpserat,  ut  ferendus  non  videretur, 
Ariovistus  had  put  on  such  high  and  migJity  airs  t'hat  he  seemed  intoler- 
able, quaesivi  cognosceretne  signum,  /  asked  if  he  recognized  the  seal. 
Caesar  ne  graviori  bello  occurreret,  ad  exercitum  proficiscitur,  to  avoid 
facing  war  on  a  more  formidable  scale,  Caesar  goes  to  tjie  army. 

The  Period 

1165.  A  period  is  a  complex  sentence  (468),  made  up  of  a 
main  and  one  or  more  subordinate  sentences,  the  words  being 
so  arranged  that  the  thought  is  kept  uncompleted  until  the 
close :  as, 

242 


Months  [i  1 66- 1 169 


Helvetii  repentino  eius  adventu  commoti,  cum  id,  quod  ipsi  diebus  xx 
aegerrime  confecerant,  ut  flumen  transirent,  ilium  un5  die  fecisse  intelle- 
gerent,  legates  ad  eum  mittunt,  the  Helvetians,  astoimded  at  his  sudden 
arrival  and  observing  that  he  had  done  in  ofte  day  what  they  had  accom- 
plished with  e.xtre7ne  difficulty  in  twenty — the  passage  of  the  river — send 
envoys  to  him. 


The   Calendar 

Months 

1166.  The  Latin  names  of  months  are  adjectives,  used  only 
in  connection  with  mensis,  montJi,  expressed  or  understood, 
or  with  the  words  Kalendae,  N5nae,  and  Idus  (i  167).  They 
are  as  follows:  lanuarius,  Februarius,  Martius,  Aprilis, 
Maius,  Junius,  lulius,  Augustus,  September,  October, 
November,  December.  The  English  names  of  months  are 
taken  from  these  adjectives. 

The  month  oi  July  was  first  called  liilius,  after  Julius  Caesar,  in  44 
B.C.,  and  August  was  called  Augustus,  after  the  Emperor,  in  8  B.C. 
Previously,  these  months  were  called  Quinctilis,  fifth,  and  Sextilis, 
sixth,  since  the  year  originally  began  with  March  ;  compare  September, 
October,  etc. 

1 167.  The  Roman  month  was  originally  lunar.  Hence  its  days  are 
reckoned  from  three  points :  Kalendae,  the  day  of  the  new  moon  ; 
Nonae,  the  day  of  the  moon's  first  quarter ;  Idus  (plural),  the  day  of  the 
full  moon. 

1 168.  Julius  Caesar,  in  46  B.C.,  reformed  the  calendar,  giving  each 
month  the  number  of  days  which  it  has  at  present.  Previously,  March, 
May,  Quinctilis  (July),  and  October  had  31  days,  February  28,  the  others 
29. 

1 169.  The  Kalendae,  Calends,  are  always  the  first  of  every 
month.  The  Nonae,  Nones,  and  Idus,  Ides,  may  be  easily  re- 
membered by  means  of  the  following  old  verses. 

243 


II70-II75] 


Appendix 


"  In  March,  July,  October,  May, 
The  Ides  are  on  the  fifteenth  day, 
The  Nones  the  seventh;  but  all  besides 
Have  two  days  less  for  Nones  and  Ides." 

Thus,  Idibus  Iuniis,y««<?  thirteenth.  Ndnis  Decembribus,  December 
fifth,  ante  Kalendas  lunias,  before  the  first  of  Ju7ie.  Often  abbreviated: 
as,  K.  Oct.,  October  first. 

1 170.  The  day  before  the  Calends,  Nones,  or  Ides,  is  expressed  by 
pridie  with  the  accusative  (661) :  as,  pridie  Nonas  Maias,  the  day  before  the 
Nones  of  May,  i.  e.  May  sixth,     pridie  Kalendas  Septembrls,  August  31. 

1 171.  The  other  days  are  reckoned  backward  from  the  Calends. 
Nones,  or  Ides,  including  the  day  of  departure  in  the  count.  Thus,  the 
second  day  before  the  Calends  was  reckoned  by  the  Romans  as  the 
third,  the  third  as  the  fourth,  and  so  on.  The  phrase  most  commonly 
employed  is  ante  diem  tertium  (quartum,  quintum,  etc.)  prefixed  to  the 
accusative :  as. 

Ante  diem  tertium  Nonas  Maias,  May  5.  But  ante  diem  is  regularly 
abbreviated  and  numeral  signs  are  used  to  represent  the  ordinal :  as, 
a.  d.  V  idus  Quinctilis,  fuly  11.     a.  d.  iiii  Kal.  Nov.,  October  29. 

1172.  Shorter  phrases  also  occur:  as,  vii  idiis  Nov.  (i.e.  Septimo 
Idiis  Novembrls),  Novanber  7.      Natus  est  Augustus  vim  Kal.  Octob., 

Augustus  was  born  on  the  twenty -third  of  September. 

1173.  The  whole  phrase  ante  diem,  etc.  (1171),  is  sometimes  treated 
as  a  single  substantive  and  governed  by  a  preposition  :  as.  dixi  caedem 
teoptimatium  contulisse  in  ante  diem  v  Kalendas  Novembris,  I  said  that 
you  had  fixed  upon  the  twenty-eighth  of  October  for  the  massacre  of  the 
nobility. 


Abbreviations   of  Proper    Names 


II7S- 
A.  =  Aulus 
App.  =  Appius 

C.  =  Gaius 
Cn.  =  Gnaeus 

D.  =  Decimus 
K.  =  Kaeso 


L.  =  Lucius 

M.  =  Marcus 

M'.  =  Manius 

Mam.  =  Mamercus 

N.  or  Num.  =  Numerius 

P.  =  Publius 


Q.  =  Quintus 

S.  or  Sex.  =  Sextus 

Ser.  =  Servius 

Sp.  =  Spurius 

T.  =  Titus 

Ti.  or  Tib.  =  Tiberius 


244 


Julian  Calendar 


[1174 


II74 

• 

Julian  Calendar 

Days 

March,  May, 

January,  August, 

April,  June,  Sep- 

of 

July,  October. 

December. 

tember,     No- 

February. 

the 

vember. 

Month 

31  days 

31  days 

30  days 

28  days 

I 

Kalendls 

Kalendis 

Kalendis 

Kalendis 

2 

3 

VI   1 

V     U 

inte 

IV    )  ante 
III    \  Nonas 

IV    \  ante 
III    S  Nonas 

IV    )  ante 
III    [  Nonas 

4 

IV     ^ 

Nonas 

Pridie  Nonas 

Pridie  Nonas 

Pridie  Nonas 

5 

III  J 

Nonis 

Nonis 

Nonis 

6 

Prldie  Nonas 

VIII  ^ 

VIII   ] 

VIII  ] 

7 

Nonis 

VII 

VII 

VII 

8 

VIII  ^ 

VI 

ante 

VI 

ante 

VI 

ante 

9 

VII 

V 

Idus 

V         ' 

Idus 

V 

'idus 

10 

VI 

ante 

IV 

IV 

IV 

II 

V 

^  Idus 

III    J 

III       J 

III    J 

12 

IV 

Pridie  Idiis 

Pridie  Idus 

Pridie  Idus 

13 

III    J 

Idibus 

Idibus 

Idibus 

14 

Pridie  Idus 

XIX 

XVIII 

XVI   ^ 

15 

Idibus 

XVIII 

XVII 

P 
3. 

XV 

16 

XVII 

^ 

XVII 

s 

XVI 

XIV 

SJ 

17 

18 

19 

XVI 

XV 
XIV 

1 

XVI 

XV 

XIV 

SL 

CD 

XV 

XIV 

XIII 

3 

XIII 
XII 
XI 

ft- 

20 

XIII 

XIII 

C3 

XII 

& 

X 

n 

5 

21 

XII 

0 

XII 

Pi 

XI 

IX 

t' 

22 

XI 

(0 

XI 

-   "o^ 

X 

■^    0 

VIII 

w 

23 

X 

^    2^ 

X 

51 

IX 

0 

VII 

pi 

24 

IX 

^ 

IX 

s 

VIII 

3 
ft) 

VI 

3; 
fill' 

25 

VIII 

0 

VIII 

X 

VII 

X 

V 

W 

26 

VII 

VII 

3 

VI 

B 
0 

IV 

27 

VI 

P 

VI 

2 

V 

^ 

III 

28 

V 

1 

V 

3 

IV 

' 

Pridie  Kalendas 

29 

IV 

c:. 

IV 

III 

[Martias 

30 

III 

- 

III 

Pridie  Kalendas 

31 

Pridie  Kalendas 

Pridie  Kalendas 

(of  the  next 

(of  the  next 

(of  the  next 

month) 

month) 

month) 

^45 


INDEX   OF   IMPORTANT   VERBS 


The  references  are  to  sections.     For  the  principal  parts  of  most  compounds, 
see  the  sections  in  which  the  simple  verbs  are  treated. 


ab-ig5,  ere,  -egi,  -actus,  408, 

ab-oleo,  ere,  -olevl,  -olitus,  433. 

ac-cld5,  ere,  -cidi,  -cTsus,  406. 

ac  cumbd,  ere,  -cubul,  -cubitus,  416. 

acuo,  ere,  acui,  acutus,  410. 

ad  iplscor,  T,  -eptus,  417. 

ad-olesco,  ere,  -olevi,  -ultus,  415. 

a-gn5sc6,  ere,  -gnovT,  -gnitus,  414. 

agd,  ere,  egl,  actus,  408. 

aid,  345. 

algeo,  ere,  alsT.  430. 

al5,  ere,  aluT,  altus,  416 

am-icio.  Ire,  -icuT,  -ictus,  447. 

am  plector,  1,  -plexus,  418. 

ap-erio,  Ire,  -enil,  -ertus,  447. 

apiscor,  I,  aptus,  417, 

arceo,  ere,  arcul,  436. 

ar-cesso,  ere.  -cesslvi,  -cessltus,  415. 

arded,  ere,  arsi,  430. 

aresco,  ere,  -arul.  416. 

arguo,  ere,  argul,  argQtus,  410. 

audeo,  ere,  ausus,  354. 

audi5.  Ire,  audivl,  audltus,  351,  446. 

augeo,  ere,  auxl,  auctus,  429. 

bibo,  ere,  bibi  (potus),  404. 

cado,  ere,  cecidi,  casus,  406. 

caedo,  ere,  cecldl,  caesus,  406. 

caleo,  ere,  cahii,  436, 

calesco,  ere,  -calul,  416. 

cano,  ere,  cecini  (cantatus),  405. 

capesso,  ere,  capessivl,  415. 

capio,  ere,  cepi,  captus,  343,  408. 

careo.  ere,  carul,  436. 

carpo,  ere,  carpsi,  carptus,  412, 


caveo,  ere,  cavl,  cautus,  427. 
cedo,  ere,  cessi,  cessus,  413. 
-cendo,  ere,  -cendl,    census,  411. 
censeo,  ere,  censuT,  census,  435. 
cern5,  ere,  crevi,  certus  and  -cretus,  414. 
cieo,  ere,  civl,  citus,  432. 
cingo,  ere,  cinxl,  cinctus,  412. 
claudd,  ere,  clausl,  clausus,  413. 
coepi,  358. 

co-gnosco,  ere,  -gn5vi,  -gnitus,  414. 
cogo,  ere,  coegl,  coactus,  408. 
colo,  ere,  colul,  cultus,  416. 
com-miniscor,  I,  -mentus,  417. 
c5m6,  ere,  compsi,  comptus,  412. 
com-perio.  Ire,  -perl,  -pertus,  440. 
c6n-fringo,  ere,  -fregl,   fractus,  408. 
con-gruo,  ere,  -grui,  410. 
consulo,  ere,  -sulul,  -sultus,  416. 
con-tingo,  ere,  -tigl,  -tactus,  405. 
coquo.  ere,  coxl,  coctus,  412. 
crebrescd,  ere,  -crebrul,  416. 
crepo,  are,  crepul,  424. 
cresco,  ere,  crevi,  cretus,  414. 
cubo,  are,  cubul,  424. 
cudo,  ere,  -ciull,  -cusus,  409. 
cupid,  ere,  cuplvl,  cupltus,  415. 
curro,  ere,  cucurrl,  cursum,  406. 

de-leo,  ere,  -levi,  -letus,  431. 
demo,  ere.  dempsi,  demptus,  412. 
de-pedscor,  I,  -pectus,  417. 
de-scendo,  ere,  -scentll,  -sconsus,  411. 
de-tineo,  ere.  -tinul.  -tentus,  434. 
dico,  ere,  dixl,  dictus,  412. 
dl-ligo,  ere,  -lex!,  -lectus,  412. 
disc5,  ere,  didici,  405. 
246 


Index  of  Important  Verbs 


dl  vidd,  ere,  -visi,  -visus,  413. 
do,  dare,  dedl,  datus,  330. 
doced,  ere,  docul,  doctus,  434. 
doled,  ere,  dolul,  436. 
domo,  are,  domui,  domitus,  424. 
duco,  ere,  duxl,  ductus,  412. 
duresco,  ere,  durul,  416. 

edo,  335. 

ef-fici5,  ere,  -feci,  -fectus,  408. 

egeo,  ere,  egul,  436. 

e-icio,  ere,  -iecT,  -iectus,  408. 

e-licio,  ere,  -licuT,  -licitus,  416. 

e-mine5,  ere,  -minui,  436. 

emo,  ere,  emi,  emptus,  40S. 

e5,  ire,  ii,  itum,  332. 

e-ripi5,  ere,  -ripuT,  -reptus,  416. 

ex-perior,  iri,  -pertus,  448. 

facio,  ere,  feci,  factus,  408. 

fallo,  ere,  fefelll,  falsus,  406. 

farcio,  Ire,  farsi,  fartus,  442. 

fateor,  eri,  fassus,  439. 

faved,  ere,  favi,  427. 

-fendd,  ere,  (fendl,  -fensus,  411. 

fer5,  ferie  -tull,  latus),  340. 

fervesco,  ere,  -ferbul  and  -fervl,  416, 

fido,  fidere,  fisus,  354. 

flg5,  ere,  fixl,  fixus,  413. 

findo,  ere,  fidi,  fissus,  407. 

fingo,  ere,  finxl,  fictus,  412. 

fI5,  fieri,  factus  sum,  346. 

flectd,  ere,  flexl,  flexus,  413. 

tle5,  ere,  flevi,  fletus,  431. 

-fligo,  ere,  -flixl,  -flictus,  412, 

fldred,  ere,  fl5rul,  436. 

fl5resc5,  ere,  -florui,  416. 

fluo,  ere,  fluxl,  fluxus  (adj.),  413. 

fodio,  ere,  fodi,  fossus,  409. 

foveo,  ere,  fovl,  fotus,  427. 

frango,  ere,  fregl,  fractus,  408, 

fremo,  ere,  fremul,  416, 

fried,  are,  fricul,  frictus,  424. 

fruor,  I,  fructus,  417. 

fugio,  ere,  fugl,  408. 

fulcio,  Ire,  fulsl,  fultus,  442. 

fulgeo,  ere,  fulsi,  430. 

fundo,  ere,  fudi,  fusus,  409. 

fungor,  i,  functus,  417. 

gauded,  ere,  gavlsus,  354. 
gemo,  ere,  gemul,  416. 


gero,  ere,  gessi,  gestus,  412. 
gigno,  ere,  genu!,  genitus,  416. 
gradior,  i,  gressus,  418. 

habeo,  ere,  habul,  habitus,  434. 
haered,  ere,  haesi,  430. 
haurio.  Ire,  hausi,  haustus,  442. 
horreo,  ere,  horrul,  436. 
horresco,  ere,  -horrui,  416. 
hortor,  arl,  hortatus,  425. 

iaced,  ere,  iacul,  436. 

iacio,  ere,  iecl,  iactus,  408. 

— ,  — ,  Id,  ictus,  408. 

I-gn5sc6,  ere,  -gndvl,  -gn5tum,  414. 

im-bu6,  ere,  -bul,  -butus,  410. 

in-cipio,  ere,  -cepi,  -ceptus,  408. 

in-cuti5,  ere,  -cussi,  -cussus,  413. 

in-dulge5,  ere,  -dulsl,  429, 

ind-u5,  ere,  -ul,  utus,  410, 

in-lici5,  ere,  -lexi,  -Iectus,  412. 

inquam,  331. 

intel-lego,  ere,  -lexi,  Iectus,  412. 

iubeo,  ere,  iussl,  iussus,  430. 

iungo,  ere,  iunxl,  iunctus,  412. 

iuv5,  are,  iiivi,  iutus,  422. 

labor,  I,  lapsus,  418. 

lacessd,  ere,  lacesslvl,  lacessltus,  415. 

laedo,  ere,  laesl,  laesus,  413. 

largior,  Irl,  largltus,  449. 

lateo,  ere,  latul,  436. 

laudo,  are,  avi,  atus,  347, 

lavo,  are,  lavl,  lautus,  422. 

legd,  ere,  legl,  Iectus,  408. 

libet,  libere,  libitum  est  or  libuit,  360. 

liceor,  erI,  licitus,  438. 

licet,  licere,  licuit  or  licitum  est,  360. 

lino,  ere,  levl,  litus,  414. 

linquo,  ere,  llqui,  -llctus,  408. 

loquor,  I,  locutus,  417. 

luced,  ere,  luxl,  429. 

liidd,  ere,  lusl,  liisus,  413. 

luo,  ere,  lul,  -Iutus,  410, 

malo,  malle,  malui,  339. 

maneo,  ere,  mansi,  mansum,  430. 

maturesco,  ere,  maturul,  416. 

memini,  358. 

mentior,  Irl,  mentltus,  449. 

mereo,  ere,  merul,  meritus,  434. 

mergo,  ere,  mersi,  mersus,  413. 

247 


Index  of  Important  Verbs 


metior,  In,  mensus,  450. 

nietuo,  ere,  metul,  410. 

mico,  are,  micul,  424. 

nilror,  arl,  atus,  353. 

misceo,  ere,  miscul,  mixtus  and  mistus, 

434. 
misereor,  eri,  miseritus,  438. 
miseret,  miserere,  miseritum  est,  359. 
mitt5,  ere,  mIsT,  missus,  413. 
molo,  ere,  molul,  molitus,  416. 
moneo,  ere,  monul,  monitus,  349,  434. 
mordeo,  ere,  mormordi,  morsus,  426. 
morior,  I,  mortuus,  417. 
moved,  ere,  m5vl,  motus,  427. 
mulced,  ere,  mulsl,  mulsus  (adj.),  430. 

nanclscor,  1,  jiactus  and  nanctus,  417. 

nascor,  1,  natus,  417. 

nectd.  ere,  nexl  and  nexuT,  nexus,  413. 

neg-lego,  ere,  -lexl,  lectus,  412. 

nequeo,  334. 

niteo,  ere,  niluT,  436. 

nitor,  1,  nisus  and  nixus,  418. 

noced,  ere,  nocui,  436. 

n5l6,  nolle,  nolui.  338. 

nosco,  ere,  novi,  ndtus  (adj.),  414. 

nubo,  ere,  nupsl,  nupta,  412. 

-nuo,  ere,  -nul,  410. 

ob-lIvTscor,  1,  -iTtus.  417. 

ob-mutesco,  ere,  -mutuT,  416. 

obs-olesco,  ere,  -olevT.  -oletus(adj.),  415. 

oc-cido,  ere,  -cidi,  -casus,  406. 

odi,  358. 

oled.  ere,  oIhi,  436. 

op-erio,  ire,    erul,  ertus,  447. 

oportet,  oportere.  oportuit,  360. 

op-perior,  hi,  -pertus,  448. 

ordior,  irl,  orsus,  450. 

orior,  irl,  onus,  417. 

paclscor,  T,  pact  us.  417. 

paeniiet,  paenitere,  paenituit,  359. 

palled,  ere.  palluT,  436. 

pando,  ere,  pandi,  passus  and  pansus, 

411. 
parco,  ere,  pepercl,  406. 
pareo,  ere,  parul,  436. 
pario,  ere,  peperl,  partus,  405. 
partior,  Irl,  partltus,  353. 
pasco.  ere.  pavl.  pastus,  414. 
pateo,  ere,  patui,  436. 


patior,  I,  passus,  418. 
pavesco,  ere,  ex-pavl,  408. 
pel-licio,  ere,  -lexl,  -lectus,  412. 
pello,  ere,  pepull,  pulsus,  406. 
pendeo,  ere,  pependl,  426. 
pendo,  ere,  pependl,  pensus,  406. 
per-cello,  ere,  -cull,  -culsus,  407. 
peto,  ere,  petlvl  and  petil,  petltus,  415. 
piget.  pigere,  piguit  or  pigitum  est,  359 
pingo,  ere,  pinxl,  pictus.  412. 
placed,  ere,  placul.  placitus,  434. 
plango,  ere,  planxl,  jilanctus,  412. 
plaudd,  ere,  plausi,  plausus,  413. 
-pled,  ere,  -plevi,  -pletus,  431. 
-plied,  are,  -plicul,  -plicitus,  424. 
pluit,  359. 

pdnd,  ere,  po-sul,  po-situs,  416. 
posed,  ere,  poposci,  405. 
possum,  posse,  potui,  328. 
potior,  Irl,  potltus,  417. 
pre-hendd,  ere,  -hendi.  -hensus,  411. 
premd,  ere.  pressi,  pressus.  413. 
prendd,  ere,  prendl,  prensus,  411. 
pro-ficiscor,  I,  -fectus,  417. 
pro-hibed.  ere,  -hihul,  -hibitus,  434. 
prdmd,  ere,  prdmpsl.  prdmptus,  412. 
pudet,  pudere,  puduit  or  puditum  est, 

359- 
pungd,  ere,  pupugl,  punctus,  405. 

quaero,  ere,  quaeslvl,  quaesltiis,  415. 

quatid,  ere,  -cussi,  quassus,  413. 

qued,  334. 

queror,  I,  questus,  353.  417. 

quiesco,  ere,  quievi,  quietus  (adj.),  415. 

radd,  ere,  rasi,  rasus,  413. 

rapid,  ere,  rapul,  raptus,  416. 

refert,  referre,  retulit,  360. 

regd,  ere,  rexi,  rectus,  341,  412. 

reor,  rerl,  ratus,  437. 

re-perid,  ire,  re-pperl,  re- pertus,  440. 

repd,  ere,  repsi,  412. 

rided.  ere,  risl,  -risus,  430. 

rumpd,  ere,  rupl,  ruptus,  408. 

rud,  ere,  rul,  -rutus,  410. 

saepid,  Ire,  saepsi,  saeptus,  442. 
salid.  Ire,  salul.  447. 
sapid,  ere,  saplvl,  415. 
sarcid.  Ire,  sarsi,  sartus.  442. 
scandd,  ere,  -scendl,  -scSnsus,  411. 

248 


Index  of  Important  Vej^ds 


scindd,  ere,  -scldl,  scissus,  407. 
scio.  Ire,  sclvl,  scltus,  444. 
scisco,  ere,  scivl,  scltus,  414. 
scrlbo,  ere,  scrips!,  scrlptus,  412. 
■  sculpo,  ere,  sculpsT,  sculptus,  412. 
sec5,  are,  secui,  sectus,  424. 
seded,  ere,  -sedi,  -sessus,  428. 
senescd,  ere,  -senui,  416. 
senti5,  ire,  sens!,  sensus,  443, 
sepelio.  Ire,  sepellvl,  sepultus,  445. 
sequor,  I,  secutus,  417. 
ser5,  ere,  -serul,  sertus,  416. 
sero,  serere,  sevi,  satus,  404. 
sido,  ere,  sidl  (-sidi,  -sedl),  -sessus,  409. 
sileo,  ere,  silul,  436. 
sino,  ere,  sivl  and  -sil.  situs,  414. 
sist5,  ere,  -stiti,  status,  404. 
soled,  ere,  solitus,  354. 
so-lvo,  ere,  so-lvl,  so-lutus,  410. 
sono,  are,  sonui,  424. 
sortior,  Irl,  sortitus,  449. 
spargo,  ere,  sparsi,  sparsus,  413. 
sperno,  ere,  sprevi,  spretus,  414. 
-spicid,  ere,  -spexl,  -spectus,  412. 
spondeo,  ere,  spopondl,  sponsus,  426. 
spuo,  ere,  -spul,  410. 
statuo,  ere,  statu!,  statutus,  410. 
sterno,  ere,  stravl,  stratus,  414. 
stinguo,  ere,  -stinxl,  -stinctus,  412. 
st5,  stare,  stetl,  421. 
strepo,  ere,  strepul,  416. 
strldeo,  ere,  strldl,  428. 
stringo,  ere,  strinxl,  strictus,  412. 
stru5,  ere,  struxl,  structus,  412. 
studeo,  ere,  studul,  436. 
stupeo,  ere,  stupul,  436. 
suaded,  ere,  suasi,  suasus,  430. 
suesco,  ere,  suevl.  suetus,  415. 
sum,  esse,  ful,  326. 
sumo,  ere,  sumpsi,  sumptus,  412. 
su5,  ere,  -sul,  sutus,  410. 

taceo,  ere,  tacul,  tacitus  (adj.),  434. 

taedet,  taedere,  taesum  est,  359. 

tangd,  ere,  tetigl,  tactus,  405. 

tego,  ere,  texl,  tectus,  412. 

temiid,  ere  (contempsi,  contemptus),  412. 

tendo,  ere,  tetendl,  tentus,  405. 


teneo,  ere,  tenul,  -tentus,  434. 

tepesco,  ere,  -tepul,  416. 

tergeo,  ere,  tersi,  tersus,  430. 

tero,  ere,  trivl.  tritus,  414. 

terreo,  ere,  terrul,  terriius,  434. 

tex5,  ere,  texul,  textus,  416. 

timed,  ere,  timul,  436. 

-timesco,  ere,  -timul,  416. 

tingd,  ere,  tinxl,  tinctus,  412. 

tollo,  ere  (sustull,  sublatus),  405. 

tondeo,  ere,  -totondi  and  -tondl,  tonsus, 

426. 
tono,  are,  tonul  (at-tonitus),  359,  424. 
torqued,  ere,  torsi,  tortus,  429. 
torreo,  ere,  torrul,  tostus,  434. 
trah5,  ere.  traxi,  tractus,  412. 
tremo,  ere,  tremul,  416. 
tribud,  ere,  tribul,  tribiitus,  410. 
trudo,  ere,  trusi,  trusus,  413. 
tueor,  eri,  tuitus,  438. 
turidd,  ere,  tiinsus,  406. 

ulclscor,  1,  idtus,  417. 
unguo,  ere,  unxl,  unctus,  412. 
urgeo,  ere,  ursi,  430. 
uro,  ere,  ussi,  ustus,  412. 
utor,  I,  usus,  418. 

vado,  ere,  -vasi,  -vasus,  413. 

valeo,  ere,  valul,  436. 

veho,  ere,  vexl,  vectus,  412. 

velld,  ere,  velll,  vulsus,  411. 

venio.    Ire,   veni,   venlum  and  -ventus, 

441. 
vereor,  erI,  veritus,  353,  438. 
verro,  ere,  -verri,  versus,  411. 
verto,  ere,  verti,  versus,  411. 
veto,  are,  vetui,  vetitus,  424. 
video,  ere,  vidl,  visus,  428. 
vige5,  ere,  vigul,  436. 
vincio.  Ire,  vinxl,  vinctus,  442 
vinco,  ere,  vicl,  victus,  408. 
viso,  ere,  visl,  409. 
vivo,  ere,  vixl,  412. 
volo,  velle,  volul,  337. 
volvo,  ere,  volvl,  volutus,  410. 
vom5,  ere,  vomul,  416. 
i  voveo,  ere,  vovl,  v5tus,  427. 


GENERAL    INDEX 


The  references  are  to  sections. 


-a-  stems,  133-141,  242. 

ab,  with  abl.  of  agent,  614.  684 ;  see  also 
Agent ;  with  abl.  of  separation,  602, 
606 ;  of  source,  609. 

Abbreviations  of  proper  names,  1175. 

abhinc,  with  ace,  514. 

Ablative  case,  125;  in  -1,  see  -i;  in  -e, 
see  -e ;  sing,  in  adjectives  with  con- 
sonant stems,  177;  in  present  parti- 
ciples, 203. 

Uses  of  the,  596-658 ;  absolute. 
63S-642;  accompaniment,  634;  cause, 
612-614;  comparison,  615-619; 
amount  of  difference,  655-658;  ful- 
ness, 651  ;  instrument  or  means,  645- 
649;  as  locative,  623-633;  of  man- 
ner, 635  -  637  ;  measure,  exchange, 
and  price,  652-654;  place  in  which, 
623-629  ;  place  from  which,  605-608  ; 
with  prepositions,  662-667;  of  quality, 
643;  of  the  route  taken,  644;  separa- 
tion, 600-608  ;  source  or  material, 
609-611;  specification,  650;  time, 
630-633  ;  with  facid,  611. 

Absolute  ablative,  638-642. 

Abstract  substantives,  7. 

absum,  with  dat.,  542. 

-abus,  dat.  and  abl.  plur.,  140. 

Accent,  48-51. 

Accompaniment,  ablative  of,  634. 

Accusative  case,  125  ;  uses  of  tlie.  495- 
524;    object,    497-502;    with   com- 


pound verbs,  500,  501 ;  with  verbs  of 
weeping  and  wailing,  502  ;  emphasiz- 
ing or  defining  (cognate),  503-509: 
with  verbs  of  smell  and  taste,  506;  of 
the  part  concerned,  510;  of  the  thing 
put  on,  511;  of  exclamations,  512;  of 
space  and  time,  513,  514;  aim  of  mo- 
tion, 515-520. 

Two  accusatives  combined,  521- 
524;  objects  and  predicate,  521 ;  per- 
son and  thing,  522-524. 

Accusative  with  the  infinitive,  499; 
958-971. 

acer,  declined,  255. 

Action  conceivable,  subjunctive  of,  717- 

723. 

ad,  towards,  near,  517. 

Adjectives,  defined,  8;  formation  of. 
71-89;  comparison  of ,  So-89  ;  declen- 
sion of,  239-26S;  stems  in  -o-  and 
-a-,  242-247;  in  a  consonant,  248- 
253;  in  -i-,  254-261;  numeral,  see 
Numerals. 

Agreement  of,  476-482;  used  sub- 
stantively, 487-489;  instead  of  pos- 
sessive gen.,  554;  with  the  dat.,  536; 
with  the  gen.,  573*575  ;  with  the  in- 
finitive, 952;  position  of,  1144. 

adsuefactus,  with  infin.,  956. 

adulter,  149. 

Adverbs,  defined,  10 ;  formation  of,  293- 
305;    comparison    of,   90;    numeral, 

50 


General  Index 


1073,  1074;  uses  of,  669-675;  as  ad- 
jectives, 670;  position  of,  1 145. 

Adversative  clauses,  see  Concessive 
Clauses. 

Adversative  conjunctions,  769-774. 

aedis,  aedes,  124. 

aeger,  declined,  244. 

aequum  est,  694. 

aer,  declension  of,  179. 

aetas,  declined,  163;  see  id  aetatis. 

aether,  declension  of,  179. 

Agent,  with  ab,  614,  684;  dative  of, 
544,  545,  684;  with  gerundive  con- 
struction, 991. 

ager,  declined,  147. 

Agreement  of  the  verb,  469-474  ;  sub- 
stantive, 475;  adjective,  476-485; 
pronoun,  483-485. 

-ai,  genitive  in,  137. 

aio,  345. 

aliquis,  declension  of,  290 ;  use  of,  1065. 

alius,  declension  of,  246 ;  use  of,  1047. 

Alphabet,  16-20. 

alter,  declension  of,  246 ;  use  of,  1047. 

Alternative  questions,  705 ;  indirect, 
813,  814. 

alteruter,  declension  of,  292. 

alvus,  gender,  143. 

ambo,  declension  of,  265 ;  ambabus, 
140. 

amnis,  declined,  185. 

amplius,  for  amplius  quam,  618. 

an,  in  questions,  698,  702,  705;  an 
n5n  in  indirect  questions,  813. 

Anaphora,  1148. 

animal,  declined,  193. 

animi,  622;  animo,  625. 

Annalistic  present,  734. 

Answers,  703,  704. 

ante,  in  expressions  of  time,  656-658; 
ante  diem  governed  by  a  preposition, 
II73- 

Antecedent  of  relative,  822-830. 

Antepenult,  42. 

antequam,  constructions  with,  877-S80. 


Apodosis,  926;  nature  of,  927;  in  indi- 
rect discourse,  1038-1040;  see  also 
Conditional  Periods. 

Apparent  compounds,  105-ioS. 

Appellatives,  5. 

Appositive,  defined,  463 ;  with  posses- 
sive pronoun,  555;  position  of,  1142. 

-are,  verbs  in,  91,  323,  347,  348. 

-ado-,  suffix,  66. 

arx,  declined,  193. 

-as,  genitive  in,  137.  , 

Asyndeton,  752-754. 

at,  769,  774. 

atque,  use  of,  759,  760. 

Attraction,  subjunctive  of,  793. 

Attribute,  defined,  462 ;  position  of, 
1 140. 

audax,  declined,  259. 

audio,  conjugation  of,  351,  352;  pres- 
ent participle  with,  1019. 

aut,  764,  765. 

autem,  769,  770;  position  of,  1159. 

auxilium,  auxilia,  124. 

b,  before  s  or  t,  pronunciation  of,  32. 

belli,  622. 

beneficus,  comparison  of,  84. 

-bili-,  suffix,  73. 

bonus,  declined,  242;  comparison  of,  85. 

bos,  declension  of,  175. 

brevis,  declined,  257. 

-bri-,  suffix,  76. 

-bro-,  suffix,  64. 

Bucolic  diaeresis,  1134. 

-bulo-,  suffix,  64. 

-bundo-,  suffix,  72. 

C,  pronunciation  of,  32. 

Caesura,  defined,  1127,  1128;  kinds  of, 

1 129;  in  hexameter,  1132-1136. 
Calendar,  the  Roman,  1166-I174. 
Calends,  1 169. 
capid,  conjugation  of,  343. 
caput,  declension  of,  165. 
Cardinals,  list  of,  1074;  declension  of,  262. 


General  Index 


Case  endings,  128,  130. 

Cases,  125-127;  use  of,  490-667. 

castrum,  castra,  124. 

causa,  with  genitive,  570,  998. 

Causal  sentences,  defined,  784  ;  relative, 
839,  840 ;  with  quod  or  quia,  846. 
851,  852;  with  cum,  860-863;  with 
quoniam,  865,  866. 

Cause,  abl.  of,  612-614;  ^^1-  of  gerun- 
dive or  gerund,  1002;  participle  de- 
noting, 1017. 

cav6,  in  prohibitions,  729. 

-ce,  275. 

celo,  with  two  accusatives,  522. 

certum  est,  with  infinitive,  956. 

ch,  pronunciation  of,  36. 

Characteristic,  relative  sentences  of, 
836-838. 

Chiasm,  1 1 50. 

-ci-,  suffix,  72. 

circumdo,  construction  with,  535. 

citerior,  87. 

-co-,  suffix,  76. 

coepi,  conjugation  of,  358;  voice  with 
dependent  infinitive,  688. 

Cognate  accusative,  503-508. 

Collectives,  6 ;  with  sing,  or  plur.  verbs, 
472. 

Colon,  rhythmical,  1124. 

colus,  gender,  143. 

Common  names,  5;  vowels,  22;  gender, 
122. 

Comparative  degree,  formation  of,  8a- 
90;  declension  of,  248;  use  of,  676- 
678;  with  ablative,  615. 

Comparative  sentences,  with  quam, 
617,  867-871;  with  quo,  907. 

Comparison  of  adjectives,  80-89;  of  ad- 
verbs, 90;  ablative  of  comparison, 
615-619. 

Comparisons,  conditional,  944,  945. 

Composition,  97;  of  nouns,  99-108;  of 
verbs,  109-113. 

Compound  sentences,  467;  syntax  of, 
751-782. 

25 


Complex  sentences,  468;  syntax  of,  783- 
945. 

Conative  use,  739. 

Concession,  subjunctive  of,  716;  parti- 
ciple denoting,  1017. 

Concessive  clauses,  defined,  784;  with 
relatives,  839;  with  cum,  860-863; 
with  quamquam,  872,  873;  wiih 
quamvis,  875,  876;  position  of,  1163. 

Concessive  protases,  943. 

Concrete  substantives,  5. 

Conditional  comparisons,  944,  945. 

Conditional  periods,  926-945;  classes 
of,  930-932;  in  indirect  discourse, 
I 034- I 040. 

Conditional  protasis,  instead  of  indirect 
question,  812;  introduced  by  relatives, 
831;  participle  representing,  1017; 
position  of,  1 163. 

conf  ido,  with  ablative,  629. 

Conjugation  defined,  114;  the  four  con- 
jugations, 324;  see  also  Periphrastic. 

Conjunctional  sentences,  845-945. 

Conjunctions,  defined,  13;  classes  and 
uses  of,  755-774. 

Consecutive  clauses  with  ut,  891,  892, 
902-905. 

consilium  est,  with  infinitive,  956. 

Consonant  stems,  156-180,  248-253. 

Consonants,  pronunciation  of,  31  -  36; 
classification  of,  37-41. 

consul,  declined,  168. 

Contraction  in  perfect  tenses,  383-386. 

Coordinate  sentences,  466. 

Coordination,  467,  751-782. 

Copulative  conjunctions,  755-762. 

cor,  declension  of,  164. 

cornu,  declined,  225. 

Correlative  sentences,  842. 

-cro-,  suffix,  64. 

-cula-,    suffix,  67. 

-cuio-,  suffix,  64.  67. 

cum,  with  abl.  of  accompaniment,  634; 
of  manner,  635-637 ;  appended,  668. 

cum,   conjunctive  particle,    853;  tern- 

2 


General  Index 


poral,  854-859;  explanatory  or  causal 
(concessive),  860-863  !  in  conditional 
protasis,  942;  cum  primum,  moods 
with,  881,  882;  cum  .  .  .  tum,  864. 

-cundo-,  suffix,  72, 

cupio,  with  infinitive,  965. 

euro,  with  gerundive,  994. 

custos,  declined,  163. 

-da-,  suffix,  70. 

Dactyl,  1122. 

Dactylic  hexameter,  1131-1137;  caesura 
in,  1132-1136;  diaeresis  in,  1134;  ex- 
amples of,  1 135,  1 1 36;  hypermetrical, 

1137. 

Dates,  see  Calendar, 

Dative  case,  125;  uses  of  the,  525-548; 
as  essential  complement,  526,  529-536; 
as  optional  complement,  527,  537-546; 
with  verbs  of  intransitive  use,  530- 
532;  with  compound  verbs,  532,  534; 
with  verbs  of  transitive  use,  533,  534; 
of  the  person  interested  (advantage  or 
disadvantage),  537-540;  with  verbs  of 
warding  off  and  of  robbing,  539;  with 
verbs  of  motion,  540  ;  with  adjectives, 
536;  the  emotional  (ethical),  541;  of 
the  possessor,  542-545;  of  relation, 
546 ;  of  the  agent  (see  Agent),  544,  545 ; 
predicative,  528,  547,  548;  of  purpose, 
548. 

de,  with  abl.  of  source,  609,  610  ;  instead 
of  partitive  genitive,  563. 

deabus,  140. 

debeo,  with  dependent  infinitive,  693. 
694;  in  indicative  apodosis,  940. 

Declension  defined,  1 14;  see  also  In- 
flection. 

Defective  verbs,  357-360. 

Definition,  genitive  of,  568-570. 

Demonstrative  pronouns,  declension  of, 
273-277;  uses  of,  1049-1055  ,  position 
of,  1 1 54. 

Denominative,  defined,  60;  substantives, 
formation  of,   65-70;  adjectives,  for- 


mation of,  74-79 ;  verbs,  formation  of, 
91-96,  323;  conjugation  of,  347-352. 

Deponent  verbs,  conjugation  of,  353, 
354;  use  of,  689-691. 

Desiderative  verbs,  96. 

Desire,  subjunctive  of,  710-716. 

desum,  with  dative,  542. 

deterior,  87. 

Determinative  compounds,  loi. 

Determinative  pronoun,  declension  of, 
278;  uses  of,  1056-1058. 

deus,  declension  of,  146. 

dexter,  declined,  243. 

Diaeresis,  defined,  1127;  bucolic,  1134. 

Diastole,  11 14. 

die,  382, 

dies,  declined,  235,  236 ;  gender  of,  231. 

Difference,  abl.  of  amount  of,  655-658. 

difficile  est,  694. 

difficilis,  comparison  of,  83. 

dignus,  abl.  with,  654 ;  dignus  qui,  837. 

Diminutive  substantives,  67-69;  adjec- 
tives, 79. 

Diphthongs,  28;  pronunciation  of,  29, 30. ' 

Disjunctive  conjunctions,  764-768. 

dissimilis,  comparison  of,  83. 

Distributives,  1073;  list  of,  1074;  de- 
clension of,  268;  uses  of,  1080,  108 1. 

dives,  declined,  252. 

-do-,  suffix,  72. 

do,  conjugation  of,  330 ;  with  gerundive, 
994^ 

doceo,  with  two  accusatives,  522,  523; 
with  ace.  and  infinitive,  961. 

dolor,  declined,  171. 

dominus,  declined,  145. 

domus,  declined,  229;  gender  of,  143; 
domi,  621,  622;  domo,  608  ;  domum, 
domos,  519,  520. 

d5nec,  916;  with  indicative,  919,  922; 
with  subjunctive,  919,  922. 

dono,  construction  with,  535. 

Doubting,    construction  with  verbs  of, 

913,  914- 
duabus,  140. 

253 


General  hidex 


Dual  number,  123. 

dubito,   constructions   with,   913,  914 ; 

dubitd  an,  814. 
due,  382. 
dum,   916;    with   indicative,  917,  918: 

with   subjunctive,    921;    in    provisos, 

920 ;    in    conditional    protases,    942 ; 

dum  modo,  920,  942. 
duo,  declined,  264. 
dux,  declined,  160. 

-e,  in  gen.  of  -e-  stems,  236;  in  abl.  of 
consonant  stems,  177;  in  abl.  of  -i- 
stems,  187,  188. 

-e-,  stems  in,  230-238. 

ecquis,  declension  of,  290. 

ecus,  148. 

edo,  conjugation  of,  335,  336. 

ego,  declined,  269;  use  of,  456. 

Klision,  1109;  at  end  of  a  verse,  1125. 

-em,  in  ace.  sing.,  187,  188,  198. 

Emotional  dative,  541. 

Emphasis  secured  by  order  of  words, 
1147-1150. 

Enclitics,  51. 

Endings,  see  Case  and  Person  Endings. 

enim,  775;  position  of,  1159. 

-ensi-,  suffix,  76. 

eo,  conjugation  of,  332  ;  compounds  of, 

333. 
-eo-,  suffix,  75. 
Epicenes,  120. 
-ere,  verbs  in,  341-346. 
ere,  verbs  in,  91,  323,  349,  350. 
ergo,  775. 

-es  or  -Is  in  plur.  of  -i-  stems,  204. 
est  qui,  838. 
et,  use  of,  755,  756,  763. 
etenim,  775. 

Ethical  dative,  see  Emotional  Dative, 
etiam,  position  of,  11 59;  yes,  703. 
etiamsl,  943. 
-eto-,  suffix,  66. 
ctsi,  943. 
Euphony,  1152. 


ex,  with  abl.  of  source,  609,  610 ;  instead 

of  partitive  genitive,  563. 
Exchange,  abl.  of,  652,  653. 
Exclamations,  ace.    of,   512;    infin.   of, 

976. 
Exhortation,  subjunctive  of,  713-715. 
exspectatione,  with  comparatives,  619. 
exterior,  comparison  of,  86. 
extremus,  partitive  meaning  of,  565. 

fac,  382. 

facile  est,  694. 

facilis,  comparison  of,  83. 

facio,  with  ablative,  611. 

falsus,  comparison  of,  88. 

familias,  genitive,  137. 

fari,  357. 

fas  with  supine  in  -u,  1007. 

Fearing,  construction  with  verbs  of,  779, 
897. 

Feet  in  verse,  1122. 

Feminine,  see  Gender. 

-fer,  substantives  in,  149. 

fero,  conjugation  of,  340. 

fido,  with  ablative.  629. 

Fifth  declension,  230-238. 

Figures  of  prosody,  1109-1117, 

fill,  152. 

filiabus,  140. 

Final  clauses  with  ut,  891-901 ;  see  also 
Purpose. 

Final  syllables,  quantity  of,  1096-1107. 

fio,  conjugation  of,  346;  quantity  in 
forms  of,  1089. 

First  conjugation,  324,  347,  348;  declen- 
sion, 133-141. 

flos,  declined,  171. 

fluctus,  declined,  225. 

Foot  in  verse,  1 122. 

foras,  519. 

fore  with  perfect  participle,  985 ;  fore 
ut,  984. 

forem,  fores,  etc.,  327. 

Forj^etting,  genitive  with  verbs  of,  588. 

Formation,  defined,  52  ;  siiflixcs  used  in, 


254 


Gejieral  Index 


62-79  ;  of  substantives,  62-70 ;  of  ad- 
jectives, 71-89;  of  adverbs,  90,  293- 
305  ;  of  verbs,  91-113  ;  of  verb  steins, 
361-386;  of  the  infinitive,  387-390;  of 
the  gerundive  and  gerund,  391 ;  of 
the  supine,  392 ;  of  participles,  393- 
401. 

Fourth  conjugation,  324,  351,  352;  de- 
clension, 221-229. 

Fractions,  1082,  1083. 

Frequentative  verbs,  93-95. 

fretus,  with  ablative,  629. 

frugi,  comparison  of,  84, 

fruor,  with  ablative,  646. 

Fulness,  abl.  of,  651 ;  gen.  with  verbs  of, 

594.  595- 
fungor,  with  ablative,  646. 
Future  infinitive,  use  of,  983-986. 
Future  perfect  tense,  use  of,  748. 
Future  tense,  uses  of,  746,  747, 
futurum  esse  ut,  9S4. 

g",  pronunciation  of,  32. 

gaudeo  quod,  850. 

Gender,  defined,  115,  116;  general 
rules  for,  11 7-1 21 ;  of  -a-  stems,  133. 
134;  of  -O-  stems,  142,  143;  of  con- 
sonant and  -i-  stems,  206-220;  of  -u- 
stems,  221-224;  of -e- stems,  230,  231. 

gener,  149. 

General  suppositions,  subjunctive  in, 
934.  935. 

Genitive  case,  125;  uses  of  the,  549- 
595;  with  substantives,  550-572;  of 
the  subject,  cause,  origin,  or  owner, 
553-557;  predicative  use  of,  556,  557; 
of  quality,  558;  partitive,  559-567; 
of  definition,  568-570;  objective,  571, 
572;  with  adjectives,  573-575;  with 
verbs,  576-595;  with  verbs  of  valu- 
ing, buying,  etc.,  576-578;  with  re- 
tert  and  interest,  579-581;  with 
judicial  verbs,  582-584;  with  verbs 
of  mental  distress,  585-587;  with 
verbs    of    memory,    5S8 -592 ;     with 

2 


verbs  of   participation   and  mastery, 
593;  with  verbs  of  fulness  and  want, 

594.  595- 

genus,  declined,  171. 

-ger,  substantives  in,  149. 

Gerund,  319;  formation  of,  391;  use  of, 
987,  989,  990 ;  accusative,  995  ;  da- 
tive, 997;  genitive,  998,  999;  abla- 
tive, 1001-1003. 

Gerundive,  319;  formation  of,  391;  use 
of,  987,  988;  nominative,  991-993  ;  ac- 
cusative, 994,  995;  dative,  996;  geni- 
tive, 998,  1000;  ablative,  1002,  1003. 

glorior,  with  ablative,  629. 

Gnomic  perfect,  744. 

gracilis,  comparison  of,  83. 

Grammatical  order,  1139-1145. 

gratia,  with  genitive,  570. 

Greek  nouns,  of  -a-  stems,  141 ;  of  -o- 
stems,  155;  of  consonant  stems,  179, 
180  ;  of  -i-  stems,  205. 

grus,  declension  of,  175. 

Gutturals,  40,  41. 

habeo,  with  perfect  participle,  1018. 

habeo  in  animo,  with  infinitive,  956. 

Hadria,  gender,  134. 

Hardening,  1 1 12. 

baud,  use  of,  674;  baud  scio  an,  814. 

bavi,  357. 

beri,  622. 

Hexameter,  defined,  1 1 26;  see  also  Dac- 
tylic Hexameter. 

Hiatus,  mo;  permitted,  1125. 

bic,  declined,  274;  uses  of,  1049-1052. 

Hindering,  construction  with  verbs  of, 
898,  909. 

Historical  infinitive,  709;  perfect,  741; 
present,  see  Present  of  Vivid  Narra- 
tion. 

bonorificus,  comparison  of,  84. 

bostis,  declined,  185. 

bumilis,  comparison  of,  83. 

bumus,  gender,  143;  humi,  621; 
bumo,  60S. 


General  Index 


Hyperbaton,  1149. 

i,  vowel  and  consonant,  18 ;  pronuncia- 
tion of  consonant,  32. 

-i  in  dat.  sing,  of  adjectives,  245-247. 

-I  in  locative  of  consonant  stems,  17S. 

-i  or  -e,  in  abl.  of  -i-  stems,  187,  188. 
201-203 ;  in  abl.  of  consonant  stems, 
177;  in  abl.  of  adjectives,  184,  249, 
256. 

-i-,  stems  in,  181-205;  254-256. 

-ia-,  suffix,  65. 

iam  with  present  tense,  732. 

Ictus,  1118,  1120. 

id  aetatis,  id  genus,  509;  id  quod, 
830. 

Idem,  declined,  279;  uses  of,  1059. 

Identity,  pronoun  of ,  declined,  279;  uses 
of,  1059. 

Ides,  1 169. 

idoneus  qui,  837. 

idiis,  1 166,  1 167,  11C9. 

-ier,  infinitive  in,  389. 

igitur,  775;  position  of,  1159. 

-ill,  suffix,  73. 

-ili-,  suffix,  66. 

ille,  declined,  277;  uses  of,  1051,  1052, 
1054,  1055. 

-imin  ace.  sing.,  184,  187,  188,  198,  199. 

imago,  declined,  168. 

Imparisyllables,  158. 

Imperative  mood,  tense  of,  309,  726;  for- 
mation of,  363;  uses  of ,  725-729;  lon- 
ger forms  of,  726,  727;  in  prohibitions, 
728,  729;  in  indirect  discourse,  1023. 

Imperfect  subjunctive,  used  of  past 
time,  720,  939. 

Imperfect  tense,  uses  of,  735-739- 

impero,  with  subjunctive,  781 ;  with  ut, 
894. 

Impersonal  use  of  verbs,  with  the  in- 
finitive, 963,  972;  in  the  passive,  530, 
686;  in  the  gerundive,  992. 

Impersonal  verbs,  359,  360;  with  the 
genitive,  585-587    wiili  the  infin.,  972. 

2 


Implied  indirect  discourse,  791,  102 1, 
1029. 

imus,  partitive  meaning  of,  565. 

in,  with  ace.  and  abl.,  666;  with  abl. 
of  place,  627  ;  with  abl.  of  time,  632. 

indutus,  comparison  of,  88. 

Indefinite  pronouns,  declension  of,  287; 
use  of,  1064-1071. 

Indefinite  second  person,  457,  934. 

Independent  tenses,  797,  801. 

Indicative  mood,  use  of,  in  simple  sen- 
tences, 692-706  ;  in  declarations,  692- 
694;  in  questions  and  answers,  695- 
706 ;  tenses  of,  730-749. 

In  subordinate  sentences,  787; 
tenses,  795-797;  in  questions,  817, 
8i8;  in  relative  sentences,  832.  833; 
in  causal  sentences,  851,  852;  in  con- 
ditional protases,  933  ;  apodos>es,  937, 
940,  941;  with  cum,  854-857,  859, 
861,  864;  with  quoniam,  865,  866; 
with  quamquam,  872  ;  with  quam- 
vis,  876;  with  antequam  and  prius- 
quam,  S77-879;  with  postquam, 
ubf,  ut,  cum  primum,  simul  atque, 
881-884;  with  ut,  as,  888-890;  with 
qu5,  907 ;  with  dum,  donee,  quoad, 
quamdiii,  916-922 ;  with  quando, 
923-925;  in  indirect  discourse,  1027. 

indignus,  abl.  with,  654;  qui,  837. 

Indirect  discourse,  defined,  789,  1020; 
subjunctive  in,  788-792;  implied,  791, 
102 1,  1029;  mood  of  main  sentences, 
1023-1025;  mood  of  subordinate  sen- 
tences, 1026-1029;  tenses  in,  1030- 
1032;  questions  in,  1023-1025;  im- 
perative in,  1023 ;  relative  sentences 
in,  1027;  pronouns  in,  1033;  condi- 
tional periods  in,  1034-1040. 

Indirect  questions,  810-819;  position  of, 
1 164. 

inferior,  comparison  of.  86. 

infimus,  partitive  meaning  of,  565. 

Infinitive  mood,  319;  formation  of,  387- 
390;  in  -ier  and  -rier,  389;  use  of 

56 


General  Index 


the,  946-986;  tenses  of,  319,  978- 
986  tenses  in  indirect  discourse,  1030; 
accusative  with  the,  499,  958-971 ;  of 
intimation  (historical),  707-709;  of 
purpose,  950,  951;  with  adjectives, 
952;  as  object,  954-970;  complement- 
ary, 954-957  ;  as  subject,  971-975  ;  of 
exclamation,  976 ;  in  indirect  dis- 
course, 1023,  1024  ;  relative  sentences 
with,  in  indirect  discourse,  1027. 

Inflection,  defined,  114;  of  the  noun, 
128-305;  of  the  verb,  306-450. 

inquam,  331. 

Instrument,  abl.  of,  645-649. 

Instrumental  case,  599  ;  use  of  abl.  as, 
634-658. 

Intensive  pronoun,  declension  of,  28 1  ; 
uses  of,  1060-1062. 

Intensive  verbs,  93. 

inter,  in  reciprocal  expressions,  1047. 

interest,  constructions  with,  579-581. 

interior,  87. 

Interjections,  defined,  14. 

Intermediate  coordinate  sentences,  776- 
782. 

Interrogative  pronouns,  declension  of, 
285  ;  uses  of,  286,  1063. 

Interrogative  sentences,  see  Questions. 

Interrogatives,  position  of,  1157. 

intimus,  partitive  meaning  of,  565. 

Intransitive  use  of  verbs,  498-502. 

Inversion,  1147. 

-io,  -ere,  verbs  in,  343. 

-io-,  suffix,  63,  65,  76. 

ipse,  declension  of,  281  ;  uses  of,  1060— 
1062;  in  apposition  with  possessive 
pronoun,  555;  position  of,  1153. 

-ire,  verbs  in,  91,  323;  conjugation  of 
verbs  in,  351,  352. 

Irregular  verbs,  325. 

is,  declined,  278;  uses  of,  1056-1058. 

-IS  or  -es  in  plur.  of  -i-  stems,  204. 

iste,  declension  of,  277  ;  uses  of,  1053. 

itaque,  775. 

iter,  declension  of,  176. 

R  2 


iubeo,  with  infinitive,  968-970. 

iudex,  declined,  160. 

luppiter,  declension  of,  176. 

iuro,  with  future  infinitive,  986. 

-ius  and  -ium,  genitive  of  substantives 

in,  150;  vocative,  152. 
-ius  in  gen.  sing,  of  adjectives,  245-247. 
iuvenis,  comparison  of,  84. 
iuventus,  declension  of,  165. 
-ivo-,  suffix,  76. 

Kalendae,  1166,  1167,  1169. 

-la-,  suffix,  67. 

Labials,  40,  41. 

Labiodentals,  40,  41. 

laetor,  with  ablative,  629;  with  quod, 
850. 

laudo,  conjugated,  347,  348. 

Length  of  syllables,  46,  47  ;  of  vowels, 
43-45  ;  see  also  Quantity. 

-lento-,  suffix,  78. 

leo,  declined,  168. 

-li-,  suffix,  76. 

liber,  adj.,  declined,  243. 

Liber,  149. 

liberi,  149;  gen.  plural,  154. 

licet,  with  subjunctive,  782;  with  de- 
pendent infinitive,  693,  694. 

Linguals,  40,  41. 

List  of  important  verbs,  402-450. 

littera,  litterae,  124. 

-I0-,  suffix,  64,  67. 

Locative  case,  125;  of -a- stems,  138; 
of -o- stems,  153;  of  consonant  stems, 
178;  meaning  of  the,  598;  use  of  the, 
620-622  ;  ablative  used  as,  598,  623- 

633- 
loco,  locis,  626. 

longius,  for  longius  quam,  618. 
longum  est,  694. 
liix,  declension  of,  194. 
liixuries,  declined,  238. 

m,  pronunciation  of  final,  33,  1109. 
57 


General  Index 


magis,  comparison  with,  89. 

mag^nificus,  comparison  of,  84. 

mag^nus,  comparison  of,  84;  mag^num 
est,  694. 

maiim,  719. 

mallem,  721. 

mal5,  conjugated,  339;  with  subjunc- 
tive, 780;  with  ut,  894;  with  infini- 
tive, 965. 

malus,  comparison  of,  85. 

Manner,  ablative  of,  635-637;  parti- 
ciple denoting,  1017. 

mare,  declined,  191 ;  marl,  625. 

Masculine,  see  Gender. 

Masculine  caesura,  1132. 

Material,  ablative  of,  609-611. 

Means,  ablative  of,  645-649;  participle 
denoting,  1017;  denoted  by  abl.  of 
gerundive  or  gerund,  1002. 

Measure,  ablative  of,  652-654. 

medius,  partitive  meaning  of,  565. 

mel,  declension  of,  169. 

melius  est,  694. 

memini,  conjugated,  358 ;  construc- 
tions with,  588-590. 

Memory,  genitive  with  verbs  of,  588. 

mensa,  declined,  136. 

-mento-,  suffix,  64. 

meritus,  comparison  of,  88. 

-met,  270. 

Metre,  11 19. 

metuo  ut  or  ne,  897. 

mi,  152. 

miles,  declined,  163. 

mllitiae,  622. 

mlUe,  declension  of,  267. 

-min-,  suffix,  63. 

minor,  with  future  infinitive,  986. 

minus,  for  minus  quam,  618. 

miror,  conjugated,  353 ;  with  quod, 
850. 

misered  and  misereor,  with  genitive, 
586. 

miseresco,  with  genitive,  586. 

miseret,  with  genitive,  585. 


Mixed  stems,  192-197. 

modo,  in  provisos,  920;  in  conditional 

protases,  942. 
moned,  conjugated,  349,  350. 
-raonio-,  suffix,  65. 
Monosyllables,  quantity  of,  1091. 
Months,  names  of  the,  1166;  divisions 

of  the,  1167-1170. 
Moods,  308 ;  use  of,  in  simple  sentences, 

692-729 ;   in  subordinate   sentences, 

786-794. 
Mora,  1 121. 

multus,  comparison  of,  85. 
Mute  stems,  160-167. 
Mutes,  38,  41. 

n  adulterhium^  33. 

nam,  775. 

namque,  775. 

nascor,  with  ablative,  609. 

-ne,  in  questions,  698,  699,  705 ;  in  in- 
direct questions,  811. 

ne,  in  wishes,  710;  in  exhortations, 
713;  in  prohibitions,  715  ;  in  conces- 
sions, 716;  in  questions,  723;  with 
coordinated  subjunctives,  779 ;  in 
clauses  of  purpose,  891-900;  with 
verbs  of  fearing,  897;  with  verbs  of 
avoiding,  hindering,  and  resisting, 
898;  in  provisos,  920;  ne  non,  897; 
ne  .  .  .  quidem,  673,  762,  773,  11 59. 

nee,  see  neque. 

necesse  est,  694;  with  subjunctive, 
782. 

necne,  in  indirect  questions,  813. 

nefas,  with  supine  in  -ii,  1007. 

Negative  adverbs.  671-675;  two,  675; 
position  of,  1160. 

nemd,  declension  of,  170;  for  non  quis- 
quam,  1072;  nemo  est  qui,  83S; 
nemoest  quin,  915;  nemo  non,  675; 
non  nemo,  675. 

-neo-,  suffix,  75. 

nequam,  comparison  of,  84. 

neque,  use  of,  672. 


258 


General  Index 


nequeo,  334. 

nescio  an,  814:  nescio  quis,  818. 

neuter,  declension  of,  292  ;  use  of,  1072. 

Neuter,  defined,  115. 

ng-,  ngu,  pronunciation  of,  33. 

nihil  est  quod,  838. 

nisi,  928  ;  nisi  forte,  nisi  ver5,  928. 

nitor,  with  ablative,  629. 

nix,  declension  of,  175. 

-no-,  suffix,  76. 

No^  in  answers,  703. 

noli,  in  prohibitions,  728, 

nolim,  719. 

nollem,  721. 

nolo,  conjugated,  338  ;  with  infinitive, 
965. 

nomen,  declined,  168  ;  nomen  est,  con- 
structions with,  543. 

Nominative  case,  125  ;  as  subject  or  in 
predicate,  490;  vocative  nominative, 
491-494. 

non,  use  of,  671  ;  in  questions,  697;  in 
answers,  704;  with  subjunctive  of 
action  conceivable,  717;  position  of, 
1 160;  non  dubito,  constructions  with, 
913,  914;  non  modo,  762,  772,  773; 
non  nem5,etc.,675  ;  nemo  non,  etc., 
675;  non  quod  or  quia,  852;  non 
solum,  772. 

N5nae,  1166,  1167,  1169. 

Nones,  1169. 

nonne,  in  questions,  698-700;  in  indi- 
rect questions,  811. 

nostri,  objective.  1041. 

nostrum,  partitive,  1041. 

Notation,  1075,  1076. 

Nouns,  defined,  3-8  ;  composition  of,  99- 
108  ;  see  also  Substantives,  Adjectives. 

Nouns  of  the  verb,  319;  formation  of, 
387-401 ;  syntax  of,  946-1019, 

novus,  comparison  of,  88, 

nqu,  pronunciation  of,  33. 

num,  in  questions,  698,  701 ;  in  indirect 
questions,  811. 

Number,  122-124,312. 


Numerals,  classes  of,  1073  ;  lists  of,  1074; 
declension  of,  262  -  268  ;  forms  of, 
1077-1079;  notation,  1075,  1076;  frac- 
tions, 1082,  1083. 

-O-  stems,  142-155  ;  adj.,  242,  243. 

Object,  in  accusative,  497-502. 

Objective  genitive,  571,  572. 

Oblique  cases,  127. 

obliviscor,  construction  with,  588. 

ocior,  87. 

odi,  conjugated,  358. 

-om,  older  form  of  -um,  148. 

omnes,  position  of,  1155. 

opinione,  with  comparatives,  619. 

oportet,  with  dependent  infinitive,  693, 
694;  with  subjunctive,  778,  782. 

opus  est,  with  ablative,  646,  648 ;  with 
subject  nominative,  649. 

-or-,  suffix,  63. 

Order  of  words,  1138-1165;  grammat- 
ical, 1 1 39-1 145;  rhetorical,  1 146-1 1 52; 
of  specific  words,  1153-1160;  in  sub- 
ordinate clauses,  1161-1164;  periodic, 
1165. 

Ordinals,  1073  ;  list  of,  1074 ;  declension 
of,  268. 

5s,  declension  of,  173  ;  gender  of,  212. 

OS,  declension  of,  174;  gender  of,  212. 

-OS,  older  form  of  -us,  148. 

-5so-,  sufl[ix,  78. 

paenitet,  with  genitive,  585. 

palam,  with  ablative,  665. 

Palatal,  40,  41. 

Parataxis,  see  Intermediate  Coordinate 

Sentences,  776-782. 
paratus,  with  infinitive,  956. 
Parisyllables,  183. 
pars,  declined,  193 ;  parte,  partibus, 

626 ;  partem,  508. 
Participle,  319  ;  formation  of  the,  393- 

401;  declension  of  present,  259,  260; 

abl.  sing,  in  present,  203    use  of  the, 

1009-1019;    time  of  the,  loio,  loii; 


259 


General  Index 


attributive,  1012  ;  instead  of  abstract 
substantive,  1013;  substantive  use  of, 
1014;  appositive,  1015- 1017;  denot- 
ing time,  cause,  means,  purpose,  con- 
cession, condition,  manner,  1017; 
predicative  use  of ,  1018,  1019  ;  habeo 
with  perfect,  ioi8  ;  present,  with  verbs 
meaning  represent,  1019  ;  with  video, 
audio,  etc.,  1019;  present,  with  geni- 
tive, 574. 

partior,  conjugated,  353. 

Partitive  genitive,  559-567. 

Parts  of  speech,  2-15. 

parvus,  comparison  of,  85. 

Passive  voice,  use  of,  683-691;  with  re- 
flexive meaning,  687,  690;  of  depo- 
nents, 691, 

pater,  declined,  171, 

patior,  with  infinitive,  968. 

Patronymics,  70. 

pax,  declension  of,  162. 

pelagus,  declension  of,  174. 

Penult,  42  ;  quantity  of,  in  polysyllables, 
1093-1095. 

per,  with  ace.  of  time,  513. 

Perfect  infinitive,  use  of,  981,  982. 

Perfect  stem,  310;  formation  of,  369-381. 

Perfect  system,  369-381. 

Perfect  tense,  contraction  in,  383-386; 
uses  of,  740-744;  definite,  742;  def- 
inite, both  primary  and  secondary,  785 ; 
historical,  741. 

Period,  defined,  1165. 

Periphrastic  conjugation,  355,  356;  uses 
of,  749;  future  in  apodosis,  941. 

permitto,  with  gerundive,  994. 

Person,  311 ;  indefinite  second,  457,  934; 
endings,-  311-318. 

Personal  pronouns,  declension  of,  269 ; 
how  emphasized,  270;  as  subject,  omis- 
sion of,  456;  use  of,  1041, 

ph,  pronunciation  of,  36. 

piget,  with  genitive,  585. 

Place  in  which,  623-629  ;  to  which,  515- 
520 ;  from  which,  605-608. 


Pluperfect  tense,  use  of,  745. 

Plural,  122;  with  change  of  meaning, 
124. 

plus,  declension  of,  250 ;  for  plus  quam, 
618. 

polliceor,  with  future  infinitive,  986. 

Polysyllables,  quantity  of,  1093-1107. 

Pompeius,  declined,  147, 

I'osition,  quantity  by,  46,  1108;  of  words, 
see  Order  of  Words. 

Possessive  compounds,  104. 

Possessive  pronouns,  declension  of,  271  ; 
how  emphasized,  272;  uses  of,  555, 
1048;  apposition  with,  555. 

Possessor,  dative  of,  542-545  ;  genitive 
of.  553-557. 

possum,  conjugated,  328;  formation  of, 
329;  with  dependent  infinitive,  693, 
694. 

post,  in  expressions  of  time,  656-658. 

postea  quam,  with  subjunctive,  886. 

posterior,  comparison  of,  86. 

postquam,  constructions  with,  881-884, 
886 ;  separated,  883. 

postremus,  partitive  meaning  of,  565'. 

postrldie,  with  genitive,  553 ;  with  ac- 
cusative, 661. 

Potential  subjunctive,  see  Action  Con- 
ceivable. 

potior,  with  genitive,  593;  with  abla- 
tive, 646. 

Predicate,  defined,  451,  460;  verb  of, 
omitted,  461  ;  enlargement  of,  464. 

Predicate  adjective,  agreement  of,  478. 

Predicate  noun,  465  ;  agreement  of,  475, 
960,  974,  975. 

Predicative  dative,  547,  548;  genitive, 
556.  557. 

Prepositions,  defined,  ii;  uses  of,  659- 
668;  with  accusative,  659-661,  666; 
with  ablative,  662-667;  position  of, 
668 ;  with  expressions  of  separation, 
602,  606,  607 ;  of  source,  6og,  610. 

Present,  Annalistic,  734;  of  Vivid  Nar- 
ration, 733. 


260 


General  Lidex 


Present  infinitive,  use  of  the,  979,  980. 

Present  stem,  310;  formation  of,  364- 
368. 

Present  tense,  uses  of,  730-734. 

Price,  ablative  of,  652,  653. 

prldie,  with  accusative,  661,  1170;  with 
genitive,  553. 

Primary  tenses,  785. 

Primitives,  defined,  60;  substantives, 
62-64;  adjectives,  71-73;  verbs,  323, 
325-346. 

primus,  partitive  meaning  of,  565. 

Principal  parts,  320. 

prior,  87. 

priusquam,  constructions  with,  877- 
880. 

procul,  with  ablative,  665. 

Prohibitions,  in  subjunctive,  715;  in 
imperative,  72S,  729;  in  future  indic- 
ative, 747. 

Pronoun  questions,  706  ;   indirect,  815. 

Pronouns,  defined,  g;  inflection  of,  269- 
292  ;  agreement  of,  483-485  ;  uses  of, 
1041  -  1072  ;  in  indirect  discourse, 
1033:  position  of,  1 141;  see  also 
Personal,  Relative,  Possessive,  etc. 

Pronunciation  of  vowels,  23  -  26  ;  of 
diphthongs,  29,  30 ;  of  consonants, 
31-36. 

prope,  comparison  of,  87. 

Proper  names  (nouns),  5. 

Proper  names,  abbreviations  of,  1175. 

Prosody,  1084-1 137;  rules  of  quantity, 
1084-1108  ;  figures  of  prosody,  1109- 
II 17;  versification,  1117-1137. 

Protases,  classes  of,  930-932  ;  indeter- 
minate, in  indicative,  933 ;  indeter- 
minate, in  subjunctive,  934-937;  of 
action  non-occurrent,  938,  939;  con- 
cessive, 943  ;  variation  of,  942 ;  in 
indirect  discourse,  1034-1037. 

Protasis,  defined,  926. 

Provisos,  920. 

-pte,  272. 

pudet,  with  genitive,  585. 


puer,  deolined,  147,  149. 

Purpose,  dative  of,  548 ;  relative  sen- 
tences of,  835  ;  clauses  with  ut,  891- 
901 ;  with  quo,  908 ;  infinitive  of, 
950,  951;  participle  denoting,  1017; 
with  ad  and  gerundive  or  gerund, 
995  ;  with  causa  and  genitive,  998 ; 
with  supine  in  -um,  1005;  position  of 
clauses  of,  1164. 

qu,  pronunciation  of,  33. 

Quality,  genitive   of,   558;    ablative  of, 

643- 

quam,  as  or  than,  with  indicative,  867- 
870;  with  subjunctive,  867,  871. 

quam,  how,  in  questions,  706. 

quam,  in  expressions  of  time,  65S. 

quam,  than,  in  comparisons,  617. 

quam  ut,  871. 

quamdiii,  916;  with  indicative,  918. 

quamquam,  with  indicative,  872 ;  with 
subjunctive,  873. 

quamvis,  with  adjectives  and  adverbs, 
874 ;  with  subjunctive,  875  ;  with  in- 
dicative, 876. 

quandd,  constructions  with,  923-925. 

Quantity,  of  vowels,  43-45  ;  of  syllables, 
46,  47 ;  rules  of,  1084-1 108. 

quasi,  945. 

-que,  use  of,  755,  757,  758. 

queo,  334. 

queror,  conjugated,  353. 

Questions,  in  the  indicative,  695-706, 
817.818  ;  yes  or  no  questions,  697-702 ; 
alternative,  705  ;  pronoun,  706  ;  sub- 
junctive in,  723,  816  ;  with  uti  or  ut, 
724;  in  indirect  discourse,  1023-1025  ; 
rhetorical,  1024 ;  .see  also  Indirect 
Questions. 

qui,  declined,  283-288  ;  uses  of,  see  Rel- 
ative Pronoun  and  Relative  Sentence. 

quia,  in  causal  sentences,  851,  852. 

quicumque,  declension  of,  290. 

quidam,  declension  of,  290;  use  of, 
1066 ;  ex  or  de,  563. 


261 


Geneial  Index 


quidem,  position  of,  1159. 

quilibet,  declension  of,  290. 

quin,  in  questions,  706,  911 ;  subjunctive 

with,  912-915. 
quippe  qui,  840. 
quis,  declension  of,  285  ;    interrogative 

use  of,  286,  1063;    indefinite  use  of, 

1064;  quis  est  qui,  838. 
quispiam,  declension  of,  290. 
quisquam,  declension  of,  290  ;  use  of, 

1071. 
quisque,  declension  of,   290 ;  uses  of, 

1067-1069  ;  position  of,  11 56. 
quisquis,  declension  of,  290. 
quivis,  declension  of,  290. 
qu5,  with  indicative,  906,  907  ;  with  sub- 
junctive, 908. 
quoad,  916;  with  indicative,  918,  922; 

with  subjunctive,  922. 
quod,  in  substantive  clauses,  846-850 ; 

in  causal  clauses,  846,  851,  852  ;  quod 

sciam,  841. 
quominus,  906 ;  with  subjunctive,  909, 
quoniam,  constructions  with,  865,  866. 
quoque,  position  of,  11 59. 

-re  or  -runt,  317. 

receptui,  548. 

recipio,  with  ablative,  628. 

Reciprocal  pronoun,  equivalents  for, 
1047. 

Reduplication,  56,  371-373- 

refert,  constructions  with,  579-581. 

Reflexive  meaning  of  passive,  687,  690. 
.Reflexive  pronoun,  declension  of,  271; 
how  empha-sized,  2/2;  uses  of,  1042- 
1046. 

regens,  declension  of,  259. 

rego,  conjugated,  341,  342. 

Relation,  dative  of,  546.  « 

Relative  pronoun,  declension  of,  283 ; 
antecedent  of ,  822-830;  agreement  of, 
824-840;  use  of,  820-844;  introduc- 
ing a  main  sentence,  843,  844. 

Relative  sentences,  820-844;  equivalent 


to  conditional,  831  ;  of  purpose,  835  ; 

of  characteristic  or  result,  836-838;  of 

cause  or  concession,  839-841  ;  in  inftn. 

in  indirect  discourse,  1027. 
Relative  time,  795,  798. 
relinquo,  with  gerundive,  994. 
reliquus,  partitive  meaning  of,  565. 
Reminding^  verbs  of,  with  genitive,  592. 
reminiscor,  with  genitive,  588. 
Repeated  action,  in  present  indicative, 

731;  in  imperfect  indicative,  737;  in 

.subjunctive,  794. 
Representing,  verbs  of,  with  present  par- 
ticiple, 1019. 
res,  declined,  235. 
Resisting,  verbs  of,  with  ne,  898 ;  with 

quominus,  909. 
Result,  relative  sentences  of,  836-838 ; 

clauses  with  ut,  891,  892,  902-905 ; 

sequence  of  tenses  in  clauses  of,  806; 

position  of  clauses  of,  1164. 
rex,  declined,  160. 
Rhetorical  order,  1146-1152. 
Rhetorical  questions,  1024. 
Rhythm,  1118. 
Rhythmical  series,  1124. 
-rier,  infinitive  in,  389. 
-ro-,  stems  in,  147,  149;  adj.,  243,  244. 
rogo,  two  accusatives  with,  522 ;  with 

subjunctive,  781. 
Root  verbs,  323,  325. 
Roots,  53-56. 

Route  taken,  ablative  of  the,  644. 
riis,    as    end    of    motion,    519;    ruri, 

621. 

S,  pronunciation  of,  34. 

sacer,  comparison  of,  88. 

sal,  declension  of,  169. 

salve,  357. 

se,  uses  of,  1042-1046. 

Second  conjugation,  349,  350;  declen- 
sion, 142-155;  indefinite  second  per- 
son, 457.  934- 

Secondary  tenses.  785. 


262 


General  Index 


sed,  769,  771;  sed  etiam,  772;  sed 
ne  .  .  .  quidem,  773. 

sedes,  declension  of,  164. 

sedlle,  declined,  loi. 

senex,  declension  oi,  176;  comparison 
of,  84. 

Sentences,  simple,  451-750;  compound 
(coordinate),  751-782;  complex  (sub- 
ordinate), 783-945  ;  relative,  820-844  ; 
conjunctional,  845-945. 

Separation,  ablative  of,  600  -  608  ;  da- 
tive, 539  ;  genitive,  595. 

Sequence  of  Tenses,  802-009. 

seu,  see  sive. 

Short  syllables  and  vowels,  see  Quantity. 

si,  in  protasis,  926-945  ;  in  conditional 
comparisons,  944,  945 ;  in  indirect 
questions,  812  ;  si  non,  928. 

similis,  comparison  of,  83. 

Simple  sentences,  defined,  452  ;  syntax 
of,  486-750. 

simul,  with  ablative,  665. 

simul  atque,  moods  with,  881,  882,  885. 

sin,  929. 

sino,  with  infinitive,  968-970. 

sitis,  declension  of,  186. 

sive  or  seu,  764,  767,  768. 

Smell,  verbs  of,  with  accusative,  506. 

socer,  149. 

Softening,  1113. 

sol,  declension  of,  169. 

solus  est  qui,  838. 

Sonants,  39,  41. 

Source,  ablative  of,  609-611. 

Space,  accusative  of,  513,  514. 

spe,  with  comparatives,  619. 

Specification,  ablative  of,  650. 

spero,  with  future  infinitive,  986. 

Spondee,  1122. 

Stem,  defined,  58,  59;  of  the  noun, 
129-131  ;  of  the  verb,  307,  310;  for- 
mation of  the  verb,  361-401  ;  stems 
in  -a-,  133-141;  in  -o-,  142-155;  in 
a  consonant,  156-180;  in  -i-,  181- 
205;  in -U-,  221-229;  in -e-,  230-238. 


SU,  pronunciation  of,  34. 

sub,  with  accusative  and  ablative,  666. 

Subject,  defined,  451,  454  ;  in  the  nomi- 
native, 455;  omitted,  456-459;  of  in- 
finitive, in  accusative,   959;  omitted, 

973- 

Subjective  genitive,  553. 

Subjunctive  mood,  in  simple  sentences, 
710-724;  of  desire,  710-716;  of  wish, 
710-712;  of  exhortation,  713-715  ;  of 
concession,  716;  of  action  conceiv- 
able, 717-722  ;  in  questions,  723,  724, 
8i6. 

In  subordirate  sentences,  788-794; 
of  indirect  discourse,  788-792,  1023, 
1025.  1026,  1031,  1032,  1034-1037;  of 
attraction,  793 ;  of  repeated  action, 
794;  in  indirect  questions,  810-819;  in 
relative  sentences,  834-841  ;  in  causal 
sentences,  851;  in  conditional  pro- 
tases, 934-936,  938,  939;  in  apodoses, 
936,  938,  930;  with  cum,  858,  859, 
S63;  with  quoniam,  865,  866;  with 
quamquam,  873;  with  quamvis,  875; 
with  antequam  and  priusquam,  877- 
880;  with  ubi,  zvhen,  and  ut  quisque, 
885;  with  postquam,  886;  with  ut, 
that,  891-905;  with  quo,  908  ;  with 
quominus,  909  ;  with  quin,  912-915; 
with  dum,  donee,  quoad,  quamdiii, 
916-922. 

Tenses  of  the,  in  simple  sentences, 
750;  in  subordinate  sentences,  798- 
8og;  in  indirect  discourse,  1031,  1032. 

Subordinate  sentences,  466 ;  moods  in, 
786-794;  fenses  in,  795-809. 

Subordination,  468,  783-945. 

Substantives,  classes  of,  3-7  ;  agreement 
of,  475 ;  formation  of,  62-70 ;  inflec- 
tion of,  114-238. 

Suffixes,  formative,  58,  62-79. 

sui,  declined,  269;  uses  of,  1042-1046. 

sum,  conjugated,  326 ;  with  dative, 
547;  omitted,  461. 

summus,  partitive  meaning  of,  565. 


263 


General  Index 


sunt  qui,  838. 

suopte,  272. 

super,  with  accusative  and  ablative, 667. 

superior,  comparison  of,  86. 

Superlative  degree,  formation  of,  80-90 ; 

use  of,  679,  680. 
supersum,  wiih  dative,  542. 
Supine,  319;  formation  of,  392  ;  uses  of, 

1004-1008. 
Surds,  39,  41. 
sus,  declension  of,  175. 
suus,  uses  of,  1 04 2- 1 046. 
Syllaba  anceps,  1125,  1131. 
Syllables,  42  ;  length  of,  46,  47,  1108. 
Syncope,  11 16. 
Synizesis,  mi. 
Systole,  1 1 15. 

t,  pronunci-ation  of,  34. 

taedet,  with  genitive,  585. 

tamen,  769. 

tametsi,  943. 

tamquam,  944,  945. 

Taste,  ace.  willi  verbs  of,  506. 

-tat-,  suffix,  65. 

Temporal  clauses,  with  cum,  854-859; 
with  quoniam,  865;  with  antequam 
and  priusquam,  877-880;  witli  post- 
quam,  ubf,  ut,  cum  primum,  simul 
atque,  881-886;  with  dum,  donee, 
quoad,  quamdiu,  916-922;  with 
quando,  923-925  ;  position  of,  1163. 

teneo,  with  ablative,  628. 

Tenses,  309;  of  the  indicative,  use  of, 
730-748;  of  the  subjunctive,  750; 
primary  and  secondary,  785 ;  in  sub- 
ordinate sentences,  795-809;  sequence 
of,  802-809;  in  indirect  discourse, 
1030-1032;  see  also  Present,  etc. 

tenus,  664. 

terra  marlque,  625. 

Theme  of  the  verb,  322. 

Thesis,  1123. 

Third  conjugation,  341-346;  declen- 
sion, 156-220. 


-tf,  in  gen.  of  -u-  stems,  226. 

Time,  ablative  of,  630-633 ;  accusative 
o^t  513.  514;  participle  denoting, 
1017. 

-timo-,  suffix,  76. 

-tion-,  suffix,  63. 

Tmesis,  11 17. 

-to-,  suffix,  78. 

-tor-,  suffix,  62. 

-torio-,  suffix,  66. 

totus,  626. 

trado,  with  gerundive,  994. 

trans,  construction  with  verbs  com- 
pounded with,  501. 

Transitive  use  of  verbs,  498-502. 

tres,  declined,  264. 

tristior,  declined,  248. 

-tri-x,  suffix,  62. 

-tro-,  suffix,  64. 

tu,  declined,  269. 

-tu-,  suffix,  63. 

-tudin-,  suffix,  65. 

turris,  declined,  185. 

tussis,  declined,  185. 

-U-,  stems  in,  221-229. 

ubf,  moods  with,  881,  882,  885;  in  con- 
ditional protasis.  942. 

-ubus,  in  plural  of  -u-  stems,  228. 

-uis,  in  genitive  of  -u-  stems,  226. 

ullus,  use  of,  107 1. 

-ulo-,  suffix,  72. 

ulterior,  87. 

ultimus,  partitive  meaning  of,  565. 

-um,  gen.  plur.  in  -a- stems,  139;  in  -o- 
stems.  154. 

unus,  declined,  263 ;  with  ex  or  de,  563  ;- 
est  qui,  838. 

urbs,  declined,  193. 

usus  est,  with  ablative,  646.  648. 

ut,  with  subjunctive  in  questions,  724. 

ut,  rtJ,  with  indicative,  888-890;  paren- 
thetical clauses  with,  890. 

ut,  that,  with  subjunctive,  891-905 ;  in 
clauses  of  purpose,  891-901 ;  in  clauses 

64 


General  Index 


of  result,  902-905  ;  verbs  with  of  fear- 
ing, 897;  in  parenthetical  clauses,  900; 
in  conditional  protases,  942. 

ut,  when,  moods  with,  881,  8S2,  885. 

ut  ne,  891. 

ut  non,  891,  902-905. 

ut  quisque,  with  superlatives,  889. 

uter,  declension  of,  291  ;  derivatives  of, 
292  ;  use  of,  1063. 

uterque,  use  of,  1070. 

uti,  with  subjunctive  in  questions,  724; 
see  also  ut. 

utilius  est,  694, 

utinam,  in  wishes,  710. 

utor,  with  ablative,  646-648, 

utrum,  in  questions,  705 ;  in  indirect 
questions,  813. 

V,  consonant  and  vowel  sign,  i8,  19;  pro- 
nunciation of,  34. 

Valuing,  genitive  with  verbs  of,  576- 
578. 

vannus,  gender,  143. 

Variable  vowel,  361,  362. 

vel,  764,  766. 

velim,  719. 

vellem,  721, 

velut  si,  945. 

venit  in  raentem,  with  genitive,  591. 

Verb,  defined,  12  ;  formation  of  denomi- 
native, 91-96  ;  frequentative  or  inten- 
sive, 93  ;  desiderative,  96;  compound, 
109-113. 

Formation  of  the  stem,  361  -  401 ; 
present  system,  364-368  ;  perfect  sys- 
tem, 369-381  ;  nouns  of  the,  387- 
401. 

Inflection  of,  306-450 ;  stem  of, 
307,  310;  theme  of,  322  ;  person  end- 
ings of,  31T,  318;  voices  of,  313; 
nouns  of,  319;  principal  parts,  320; 
primitive  or  root  (irregular),  inflection 
of.  323,  325-346;  in  -ere,  inflected, 
341-346 ;  in  -id,  -ere,  343  ;  denomi- 
native, 323,  347-352;    deponent,  353, 


•354;  periphrastic,  355,  356;  defective, 
357-360;  impersonal,  359,  360;  short 
and  old  forms,  382-386. 

Use  of  the,  681-750  ;  omitted,  461 ; 
agreement  of,  469-474;  impersonal 
use,  530,  686,  963,  972,  992 ;  transi- 
tive and  intransitive  uses,  498-502; 
deponent  uses,  689-691 ;  see  also 
Memory,  Valuing,  Judicial,  Fearing, 
etc.,  etc. 

vereor,  conjugated,  353 ;  with  ut  or  ne, 
897. 

vero,  769;  position  of,  1159,  _j/(?j,  703. 

Verse,  defined,  1125;  names  of  verses, 
1126. 

Versification,  1118-1137. 

verum,  769,  771. 

vescor,  with  ablative,  646. 

vesper,  149  ;  vesperi,  622. 

vestri,  objective,  1041. 

vestrum,  partitive,  1041. 

veto,  with  infinitive,  968-970. 

vetus,  declension  of,  253  ;  comparison, 
of,  88. 

video,  with  present  participle,  1019. 

vigil,  declension  of,  196. 

vir,  149. 

virtiis,  declined,  163. 

virus,  declension  and  gender  of,  174. 

vis,  declension  of,  186. 

Vivid  Narration,  present  of,  733. 

Vocative,  126;  use  of,  492-494;  voca- 
tive nominative,  491,  494. 

Voice,  313;  use  of,  681-691;  see  also 
Passive. 

void,  conjugated,  337  ;  with  subjunctive, 
780;  with  ut,  894,  967;  with  infini- 
tive, 965. 

Vowels,  pronunciation  of,  23-26;  clas- 
sification of,  27;   quantity  of,  21,  22, 

43-45. 
vulgus,  declension  and  gender  of,  174. 

Want,  verbs  of,  with  genitive,  594. 
Wish,  subjunctive  of,  710-712. 


J65 


Genei'al  Index 


Wishing,  verbs  of,  with  subjunctive, 
780;  with  ut,  894;  with  infinitive, 
965-967. 

Words,  order  of,  1 138-1165. 

X,  prouuaciation  of,  34. 


y,  17. 

Yes,  in  answers,  703. 
Yes  or  No  questions,  697-702  ;  indirect, 
811,  812. 

z,  17. 

266 


LANE'S    LATIN    GRAMMAR 


A  LATIN  GRAMMAR  for  Schools  and  Colleges.  By 
George  M.  Lane,  Ph.D.,  Professor  Emeritus  of  Latin  in 
Harvard  University,  pp.  xvi.,  572.  Crown  8vo,  Cloth, 
$1  50;  by  mail,  $1  65. 

Among  the  hand-books  for  reference  this  is  one  of  the  best  the  stu- 
dent can  have.  It  is  fresh,  scholarly,  and  often  presents  a  subject  from 
an  original  point  of  view.  It  will  repay  the  careful  study  of  every  stu- 
dent and  teacher. — Ernest  M.  Pease,  Professor  of  Latin,  Leland  Stan- 
ford University. 

Definite  in  statement  and  remarkably  clear  in  arrangement.  The 
ripest  conclusions  of  an  eminent  scholar. — Wm,  A.  Houghton,  A.M., 
Professor  of  Latin  Language  and  Literature,  Bowdoin  College. 

This  work  is  one  of  superlative  excellence,  whose  peer  is  not  to  be 
found  in  this  country,  nor,  indeed,  as  I  believe,  in  any  other.  It  stands 
very  high  among  the  achievements  of  American  scholarship. — Charles 
R.  Lanman,  Professor  of  Sanskrit,  Harvard  University. 

Must  be  added  to  whatever  other  grammar  we  may  be  using. — John 
E.  Goodrich,  D.D.,  Professor  of  Latin,  University  of  Vermont. 

I  am  much  pleased  with  the  book  in  many  ways.  It  contains  a 
wealth  of  invaluable  examples  for  purposes  of  illustration  of  the  princi- 
ples involved,  and  a  most  carefully  drawn  series  of  distinctions  between 
similar  usages.  The  treatment  of  many  subjects  seems  to  surpass  any 
similar  treatment  that  I  have  seen  elsewhere.  —  Professor  Karl  P. 
Harrington,  University  of  North  Carolina,  Chapel  Hill,  N.  C. 

In  completeness  and  accuracy  it  is  thoroughly  satisfactory.  I  shall 
take  pleasure  in  calling  the  attention  of  my  students  to  its  many 
merits. — Professor  Thomas  Bond  Lindsay,  Ph.D.,  Boston  University, 
Boston,  Mass. 

It  is  compact  yet  comprehensive,  by  all  odds  the  fullest  exhibition 
of  the  facts  of  the  language  we  have  in  any  American  book.  In  state- 
ment clear  and  simple — in  arrangement  logical  and  scientific,  it  is  evi- 
dently the  work  of  a  profound  and  careful  scholar.  The  illustrations 
are  freshly  chosen  and  beautifully  translated.— Professor  W.  B.  Owen, 
Lafayette  College,  Easton,  Pa. 


HARPER  &  BROTHERS,  Publishers 
New  York  and  London 


LATIN    PROSE   WRITING 


CONNECTED     PASSAGES      FOR      LATIN      PROSE 

WRITING,  with  Full  Introductory  Notes  on  Idiom.     By 

Maurice    W.    Mather,    Ph.D.,    formerly    Instructor    in 

Latin  in  Harvard  University,  and  Arthur  L.  Wheeler, 

Ph.D.,  Instructor  in  Latin  in  Yale  University.     Post  8vo, 

Half  Leather,  $1  oo;  by  mail,  $i   lo. 

In  planning  the  present  book  it  has  been  the  aim  of  the  authors  to 
present  within  two  covers  all  the  essential  apparatus  for  the  writing  of 
average  passages  in  Latin  prose.  By  including  in  the  Notes  on  Idiom 
the  requisite  body  of  syntax,  stated  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  stu- 
dent who  is  to  write  Latin,  they  have  dispensed  with  the  ordinary  system 
of  reference  to  three  or  four  Latin  grammars.  The  addition  of  the 
Latin  text  tends  to  the  same  end,  and  it  is  hoped  that  for  the  exercises 
contained  in  this  volume  the  student  will  rarely  find  it  necessary  to 
refer  to  anything  .not  included  in  the  volume  itself.  .  .  .  Recognizing 
that,  in  order  to  attain  perfection  in  writing  any  language,  good  models 
must  be  studied,  the  authors  have  based  their  exercises  on  Caesar, 
Nepos,  and  Cicero,  such  selections  from  thes'e  writers  being  taken  as  are 
usually  read  in  schools.  About  a  page  of  Latin  text  serves  as  a  model 
for  each  exercise.  ...  A  number  of  recent  examination  papers  from  va- 
rious colleges  have  been  inserted,  in  the  belief  that  they  will  be  found 
useful  for  sight  tests  and  occasional  examinations. — From  Preface. 

The  book  is  admirably  adapted  to  its  purpose.  A  feature  of  special 
excellence  is  the  first  part  of  the  work  on  Notes  on  Idiom,  presenting 
in  compact,  comprehensive,  well-illustrated  form  the  main  principles  to 
guide  the  student  in  Latin  Composition.  This  alone  would  make  the 
volume  more  convenient  and  serviceable  than  any  other  text-book  on 
the  subject  that  I  know. — F.  W.  Freeborn,  Boys'  High  School,  Brook- 
lyn, N.  Y. 

Mather  and  Wheeler's  Latin  Prose  Writing  seems  to  me  an  unusu- 
ally successful  attempt  to  treat  a  difficult  subject.  The  condensation 
of  Latin  Grammar  given  in  the  earlier  pages  makes  the  subject  as  com- 
prehensible as  it  can  be  made  to  a  pupil  without  the  aid  of  a  teacher. 
The  exercises  for  translation  into  Latin  are  well  graded,  the  references 
all  that  are  needed,  and  I  believe  that  it  will  prove  in  the  class-room 
the  most  satisfactory  text-book  on  the  subject  with  which  I  am  familiar. 
— Arthur  H.  Cutler,  The  Cutler  School,  New  York  City. 

I  have  made  a  careful  examination,  and  believe  that  in  plan  and  gen- 
eral arrangement  the  book  is  unequalled.  The  Notes  on  Idiom,  and 
the  Index  of  English  Words  and  Phrases  will  be  of  inestimable  value  to 
the  student.— O.  W.  Wood,  Principal  High  School,  Clean,  N.  Y. 


HARPER  &  BROTHERS,  Publishers 
New  York  and  London 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 
BERKELEY 

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